Table of Contents
Citation: Sadiq, A. & Modu, M.M. (2024). A Metafunctional Analysis of Barack Obama’s Second Term Inaugural Address. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, 3(1), 182-10. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2024.v03i01.021.
A Metafunctional
Analysis of Barack Obama’s Second Term Inaugural Address
Aminu
Sadiq (PhD)
Department of English and Literary Studies
University of
Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria
Email: sadiqamin@unimaid.edu.ng
Phone No: 08036951084
&
Muhammad Mallam Modu
Department of English and Literary
Studies
University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria
mmmodu@unimaid.edu.ng
+2348034590519
Abstract
This study presents a Metafunctional Analysis of Barack
Obama’s second-term inaugural address. M.A.K Halliday’s Metafunction is used as
a theoretical framework for the analysis in this study with the task of
providing a better understanding of the speech. The data (Barack Obama’s
written speech) is obtained from the internet. The speech is presented as data.
Halliday’s cohesive devices (reference, ellipsis, conjunction, repetition) as
well as mood and residue are identified and analysed using tables. It is found
that additive conjunction is the most frequently used cohesive device
. In terms of mood and residue, all the sentences in speech are
declarative. The declarative mood helps the speaker to express his point of
view and send his message. It also shortens the distance between the speaker
and the listener/reader.
It is
concluded that Halliday’s Metafunctions help the reader to understand the
intention and the message the speech is trying to pass across.
Keywords
: Cohesion, Metafunctions, Mood, Residue, Barack Obama
Introduction
President
Barack Hussein Obama was born on August 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii, United
States. He is the 44th president of the United States, and the first
African American to hold the office. Obama is a graduate of Columbia University
and Harvard Law School, where he served as president of the Harvard Law Review.
In 2009, Barack Obama defeated Republican Nominee John
McCain in the general election. Nine months after his election, Obama was named
the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. He was re-elected president in November
2012, defeating Republican Nominee Mitt Romney and was sworn in for a second
term on January 21, 2013 (Maraniss, 2013).
The analysis of this work is restricted to Halliday’s cohesive
devices as well as mood and residue. The study covers the second inaugural
speech delivered by President Barack Obama at the White House on January 21,
2013.
Literature Review
This
section comprises a review of the concept of Metafuntion, Cohesion, Mood and
Residue and studies on presidential speeches.
Metafunctions
Halliday’s
Metafunction comprises Ideational, Textual and Interpersonal, however, this
paper focuses on textual and interpersonal Metafunctions. These are discussed
below.
In this way,
language functions are studied from three angles via
ideational, interpersonal and textual roles. These are referred to as the
meta-functions of language.
The ideational function of language is synonymous with
the field of discourse i.e. the subject matter of the text and the context of
language use i.e. is it a political or religious matter or any other field of
discourse? Butt et al. (2003:6) explain that ‘the experiential (ideational)
function uses language to signify experience and offers the means for creating
our experience of the world in terms of event, objects and the relationship
between them. This may be shared into logical and experiential functions, the
former allows conjunctive, logical and casual meaning to be expressed, and the
latter allows objects and events to be symbolized. This implies that language
serves as a tool for the encoder of either speaking or writing to express and
articulate his ideas and understanding internally.
The interpersonal or interactional function refers to
the mood of the discourse of social relationship that exists among participants
in a specific dialogue situation, which can shape or influence language usage
in an expression, as such, it aids in creating and sustaining social affairs
within participants in a text. Interpersonal function uses language to explore
interactions to relay attitudes (style) and provide the means for endorsing
social roles and relations as meaning in a text. This includes a variety of
means for the speaker/author to create a text as a dialogue with the
listener/reader.
According
to Matthiessen, (1995) ‘Textual function provides resources for presenting
information as text in context’ it enables individual expression to be
appraised as a message as well as related to the context of expression either
linguistic or extra-linguistic features as explained. Therefore, textual
function uses language to establish experiential and interpersonal meanings
into a precise and coherent mode; this can be achieved through the means of
stylistic devices employed in a given text, as such, the textual aspect of this
theory is particularly relevant to this study. It deals with the mode; the
internal organization and the communicative nature of a text, these can be
ascertained through the utilization of extra-linguistic features, which are the
focus of this study. Leech and Short (1981:209) see Halliday’s textual
functions of language as “… ways of using language to organize, understand and
express information for effective communication”.
Textual Metafunction, according to Halliday (1994), is the
internal organization and communicative nature of a text. It encodes its role
in a greater span of a text. The textual metafunction comprises of Structural
Component and Non-Structural Component of Texture. The Structural Component of
Texture makes up the Theme-Rheme and Given-New, while the Non-Structural
Component of Texture makes up cohesion. Cohesion which is the focus of this
paper is discussed below.
Cohesion
In
Halliday’s grammar, the analysis of cohesion is closely related to the analysis
of Theme and rhyme. This is a feature connected to the textual metafunction of
a language. A text is cohesive according to the language it is written or
spoken in. Cohesion is thus dependent on the resources of a particular
language. Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) identify four (4) types of Cohesion.
They are as follows: Reference, Ellipsis, Conjunction and Repetition.
Reference
:
This is a cohesive device introduced in one place of a
text, which is either taken as a reference point for something that follows or
as a basis of comparison. However, references can exist within and outside a
text. Reference within a text is called ENDOPHORA, while reference outside the
text is called EXOPHORA.
Examples:
a.
H
e is
rich. Yes, Musa is rich. (Endophora)
b.
Those
are
worried. (Exophora)
From
the above examples, “Musa” is a referent. “He” exists within the text while the
referent of “Those” exists outside the text.
Ellipsis
:
This is simply a shortened representation of a set of
words. It entails the omission of an earlier stated word or words. For example:
a. Attending lectures is very important. It
brings the best out of you.
b. We are all human beings. Surely, we are.
From
the above examples, “It” and “we are” respectively, are both shortened
representations of the clauses that come before them.
Conjunctions:
These are cohesive devices used in linking words, clauses,
sentences and even paragraphs together to make them unified. Example:
a. Amina
travelled to Lagos and she brought her sisters (Fati and Aisha) to live
with her for two weeks.
b. Hassan
and Hussaini are twins.
The
conjunction “and” in the first example links the clauses together while “and”
links the two words together in the second example.
Repetition
: This
is the repetition of words in a text for expressive purposes. For example:
Messi, I like your style of play. I like your dribble; I like
your passes; I like your goals. The continuous use of LIKE in the above
sentence is an example of repetition.
Interpersonal Metafunction
Interpersonal Metafunction according to
Halliday & Hasan (1985) is considered as a piece of interaction between the
speaker/writer and listener/reader. Language is considered as a way of
reflecting. Thus,
the interpersonal
metafunction uses language to translate communications among people and also it
illustrates how defendable or binding we find our proposition in a given
discourse.
In
interpersonal analysis, meaning is considered from the point of view of its
function in the process of social interaction. In the interpersonal
metafunction, a clause is analysed into Mood and Residue. The Mood element is
made up of the Subject and Finite of a clause. The rest of the clause is called
Residue which consists of Predicator, Complement and Adjunct. The Subject and
Complement are typically realised by nominal groups. The Finite is realised by the
finite element of the verb. The Predicator is realised by non-finite elements
of the verbal group. The Adjunct is realised by an adverbial group or
prepositional phrase.
The Mood
The
mood of a clause can be identified from its grammatical structure. The statement
is realised by declarative mood, the question is realized by interrogative
mood, and command is realised by imperative mood. However, the speech function
of a mood can be identified by interpreting the mood in its context.
Polarity and Modality
Polarity
refers to the decision between YES and NO. Examples are
can/can’t, do/don’t, have/haven’t. Modality
is the intermediary between YES and NO. Modality
consists of Modalisation realised by
modal verb operators such as “may”, “maybe” “will” and “must” and Modulation realized by the mood adjuncts
for instance, “no”, “not”, and “never”.
Structure
of the Mood and Residue
Declarative clause
Yusuf |
Is |
Coming |
Home |
on Monday |
Subject |
Finite |
Predicator |
Complement |
Adjunct |
Mood(Decl.) |
Residue |
The
hunters |
Might |
Reach |
the
jungle |
Tomorrow |
Subject |
Finite |
Predicator |
Complement |
Adjunct |
Mood(Decl.) |
Residue |
Interrogative clause
What |
Have |
the mechanic |
Done |
to the car |
Complement/WH |
Finite |
Subject |
Predicator |
Adjunct |
Resi- |
Mood |
-due |
Why |
Are |
all the animals |
Running |
Adjunct |
Finite |
Subject |
Predicator |
Resi- |
Mood
|
-
due |
Imperative clause
Go |
To school |
Will |
You |
Predicate |
Adjunct |
Finite |
Subject |
Residue
|
Mode
|
Do |
You |
Like |
Him |
Finite |
Subject |
Predicator |
Complement |
Mode
|
Residue
|
Studies Speeches Using Metafunctional Approach
Several
Studies have been carried out using Halliday’s Metafunctional Approach. For
instance, Wang (2010), in a Critical Discourse Analysis theory and Systemic
Functional Linguistics, analyses Barack Obama’s Victory and Inaugural Speeches
(Nov.2008 and Jan. 2009 respectively) mainly from the point of transitivity and
modality. He applies Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar, in terms of the
three meta-functions: ideational function, interpersonal function and textual
function.
Wang
posits that Barack Obama used simple words and short sentences instead of
difficult ones. His language is easy and conversational. Thus, it can easily
shorten the distance between him and the audience. From transitivity analysis, the
material process has been used most in his speeches. From the process, Obama
shows what the government of the United States of America has achieved, what
they are doing and what they will do. The use of transitivity in his speeches
aroused the American people’s confidence in the president and his government in
the following four years. Wang’s finding was that Obama made his audience
understand and accept his political speeches more easily through the use of
modal verbs. Eventually, Wang’s
Critical
Discourse Analysis explores the relationships among language, ideology and
power. Dickenson (2009) in another related study, analyses two Prime
Ministerial speeches (Paul Keating and Kevin Rudd’s speeches). He studies the
style and communicative functionality of two Prime Ministerial speeches on
indigenous issues in further exploration of the relationship between text and
context in politically sensitive texts. Dickenson reveals how the similarities
and differences in the style and communicative functionality of the two
speeches, realised by experiential, interpersonal and textual meanings, result
from the relation between text and context.
Dickenson
(2009) asserts that the analysis of the experiential, interpersonal and textual
meaning choices of both texts has revealed how these similarities and
differences were realised. The similarities in the two texts emerged from their
sharing similar situational contexts, namely having a similar Mode, Field and
Tenor. Likewise, differences in the general style and communicative function of
the two texts were shown to have emerged from differences in other contextual
factors such as purpose, setting and sociocultural context.
Ahmad
(2016), in a Transitivity Analysis of the Inaugural Speech of President Umaru
Musa Yaradua, investigates the transitivity process used in the 2007 inaugural
speech of President Umaru Musa Yaradua. The study involves the distribution of
the speech into sentences, then sentences to clauses as well as the transitivity
process. The speech was obtained from the internet using the content method.
However, process types were analysed and the semantic features were
highlighted. The findings of the research show that the material process was
the most frequently used process type followed by mental and verbal processes
respectively. Ahmad also shows that there are significant differences in terms
of the use of verbs and the roles of participants in the speech.
In a similar
study, Khany and Zohre (2014) rhetorically analyse Twenty (20) speeches”.
Halliday and Hasan’s (1989) SFG theory of language was used in this study as a
method of analysing the rhetorical structure of political speeches, to reveal
the Generic Structure Potential of political speeches. Based on the Systemic
Functional Grammar theory which holds the view that there exists a pattern in
behaviour, speeches were analysed to reveal a solid pattern of moves laid
within them. Khany & Zohre started with Muammar Gaddafi who tried to
downgrade his enemies in people's view by cultural means. On the other hand,
Adolf Hitler needed to pull people to the war fronts so he tried to motivate a
sense of loyalty within the soul of society. Gaddafi, for example, stated the
following paragraph as a means to devalue his opponents and solidify his
position.
Open the channel of Libya in Down Street. Open the Libya
channel if your nerves hold off what you will see. Open the Libya channel if
you hold… Berlusconi, Sarkozy, Cameron and others, make sure now you’re here is
in the sea. And you are chasing a mirage. And you must be dreaming.
To
depict a good image among people, Hitler, on the other hand, declared an
obvious paradoxical statement, meaning “I am not the cause of war and just
exposed to defending”. He uttered this statement:
I have been striving for two decades, with a minimum of
intervention and without destroying our production, to arrive at a new
socialist order in Germany, one that not only eliminates unemployment but also
permits the productive worker to receive an even greater share of the fruits of
his labour. The achievements of this policy of national economic and social
reconstruction -- which strove for a true national community by overcoming rank
and class divisions -- are unique in today's world.
Khany &
Zohre’s rhetorical analysis is part of Halliday’s SFG; it gives the dictators’
speeches a better meaning and understanding.
Data Analysis
This section
explicates on the analysis of
four identified types of Cohesion, namely; Reference,
Ellipsis, Conjunction and Repetition.
Analysis of Cohesion in Barack Obama’s Speech
Halliday
and Matthiessen (2004) identify four types of Cohesion, namely; Reference, Ellipsis,
Conjunction, Ellipsis and Repetition. All four types can be found in Barack
Obama’s speech. Below is an analysis of Cohesive Devices in Barack Obama’s
speech.
Reference
: This is a cohesive device introduced in one place of a
text, which is either taken as a reference point for something that follows or
as a basis of comparison. When a reference occurs after its antecedent, it is
called “Anaphoric Reference”. A reference before its antecedent is called a “Cataphoric
Reference”. The table below shows the occurrence of references in Obama’s
speech. Sentence numbers indicate the place of occurrence.
Table 1: Table Showing the Occurrence of References in
Obama’s Speech
SN |
Reference |
Referent |
Place of occurrence |
1 |
She
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
Little girl |
30 |
2 |
That
(Cataphoric
Reference)
|
To make these words, these rights,... |
71 |
3 |
We
(Cataphoric
Reference)
|
The people, Americans... |
27,36,44,53,64 |
4 |
His/He
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
God |
7,89 |
5 |
They
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
The patriots of 1776... |
8,9 |
6 |
It
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
Freedom |
7 |
7 |
These
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
Our celebration of initiative...
|
17 |
8 |
They, these things
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
The commitments we make to... |
42,42 |
9 |
It
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
...this moment |
26 |
10 |
That
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
A nation that rewards the effort... |
33,34,35 |
11 |
They
(Anaphoric
Reference)
|
All men... |
5 |
The table
above shows that eleven references were found in Obama’s speech, nine of which
are Anaphoric references, while only two are Cataphoric references. ‘We’, which
refers to ‘the people of America’, has the highest instances of reference in
the speech.
Conjunctions
: They are used to link or join words,
phrases, clauses and sentences together. Halliday’s four categories of
conjunction (additive, adversative, causal and temporal) are adopted for the
analysis.
Table 2: Table Showing the Occurrence of Conjunctions in
Obama’s Speech
Conjunction types |
Conjunctions |
No. of occurrence |
Place of occurrence (Sentence No.) |
Additive |
And, or, nor |
93 |
3(2),5,9(2),10,11(3),12,13(3),14,15(2),16,17(2),
19(2),20(5),21,22,25(3),26,27,29,30,32(2),36,37,38,39,40,41(2),42(2),45,46(2),47,49,50(3),53,54,57(2),58(2),59,61,62,63(3),64(4),66,67,69,70(2),71(2),75,76(2),78(2),80,82,83,84,85(2),86,87(3),89 |
Adversative |
But |
11 |
18,33,38,45,48,57,59,62,63,81,85 |
Causal |
So, because |
5 |
18,30,32,59,63 |
Temporal |
Then, when |
4 |
29,30,39,67 |
The
table above shows that all four categories of Conjunction namely: Additive,
Adversative, Causal and Temporal were found in Obama’s speech. Additive
conjunctions, having occurred ninety-three times, have the highest number of
occurrences and it is the most frequently used conjunction. Adversative
conjunction, having occurred eleven times, is the second highest. Causal
conjunction follows with five occurrences. Temporal conjunction with only four
occurrences is the least used conjunction.
Ellipsis
: Ellipsis is a shortened representation of an earlier
mentioned word or group of words, or the omission of a word or words where the
subsequent word has the same reference as the first.
Table 3: Table Showing the Occurrence of Ellipsis in Obama’s
Speech
SN |
Word(s) |
Ellipsis |
Number of Occurrence |
Place of Occurrence |
1 |
Little girl |
She |
4 |
(30) |
2 |
To make these words... |
That |
1 |
(71) |
3 |
The people, Americans... |
We |
46 |
(27,36,44,53,64) |
4 |
The patriots of 1776... |
They |
1 |
(8&9) |
5 |
Freedom |
It |
1 |
(7) |
6 |
Our celebration of initiative... |
These |
1
|
(17) |
7 |
The commitments we make to... |
These things |
1 |
(42&43) |
8 |
...this moment |
It |
1 |
(27) |
9 |
A nation that rewards the... |
That |
1 |
(33,34,35)
|
10 |
All men... |
They |
1 |
(5) |
From the above table, it is obvious that ellipses
such as “that”, “these things”, “” “”, “”, “” and “these” are all shortened
representations of the word(s) that come before or after them.
Repetition
: This is the repetition of words in a text for expressive
purposes. Lexical items frequently repeated throughout the speech can be seen
below.
Table 4: Table Showing the Repetition of Lexical Items in
Obama’s Speech
S/N |
Lexical Items |
Number of Occurrences |
Place of occurrences |
1 |
We |
61 |
1(2),2,3,5,6,10,11,12,13,14,15,16(2),18(2),25,26(3),
27,28,29,30,31,32,36,37,38,39,40,41(2),42,44,45,48,
49(2),51,53,57(2),58,59(3),61,62,63,64(2),67(2),69, 75,76,77,78,80,82
|
2 |
Together |
6 |
12, 13, 14, 15, 21, 26 |
3 |
Our journey |
5 |
66, 67, 68, 69, 70 |
4 |
Government |
4 |
8, 16, 31, 74 |
5 |
The people |
6 |
9,27,36,44,53,64, |
6 |
American(s) |
17 |
4,19,22,25,26,28,29,30,33,38,44,47,60,62,71,79,89 |
|
Total |
84 |
|
The
table above shows that out of eighty-four occurrences of lexical items
repeated, ‘We’ occurred sixty-one times and is the most frequently repeated
lexical item, followed by ‘America’ which occurred seventeen times. ‘Together’
and ‘The people’ occurred six times each, while ‘Our journey’ occurred five
times. ‘Government’ occurred only four times and it is the least frequently
repeated lexical item.
Interpersonal Metafunction Analysis of Obama’s Speech
Below
is an interpersonal metafunction analysis of a part of Barack Obama’s second-term
inaugural speech delivered at the White House on January 21, 2013. Numbers are
used to identify sentences in the speech. Sentence and clause boundaries are
also used to identify sentences and clauses in the speech. In the interpersonal
metafunction analysis, a clause is analysed into Mood and Residue elements,
that is, S(subject), F(Finite), P(predicator), C(complement) and A(adjunct) at
the primary degree of delicacy
(less detailed analysis).
1.
///And for more than two hundred years[A], we[S] have[F].///
2.
///Through blood drawn by lash and blood drawn by the sword[A], we[S]
learned[F/P] that no union founded on the principles of liberty and equality
could survive half-slave and half-free[C].///
3.
///We[S] made[F/P] ourselves anew[C], //and vowed[F/P] to move forward
together[C]./
4.
///Together[A], we[S] determined[F/P] that a modern economy requires
railroads and highways to speed travel and commerce, schools and colleges to
train our workers[C].///
5.
///Together[A], we[S] discovered[F/P] that a free market only thrives
when there are rules to ensure competition and fair play[C].///
6.
///Together[A], we[S] resolved[F/P] that a great nation must care for
the vulnerable,// and protect[P] its people[C] from life’s worst hazards and
misfortune[A].///
7.
///Through it all[A], we[S] have[F] never[A] relinquished[P] our scepticism
of central authority[C],// nor[+] have we succumbed to the fiction that all
society’s ills can be cured through government alone[C].///
8.
/// Our celebration of initiative and enterprise, our insistence on hard
work and personal responsibility[S1],// these[S2] are[F] constants[C] in our
character[A].///
9.
///We[S] understand[F/P] that
outworn programs are inadequate to the needs of our time[C].///
10.
///So[+]
we[S] must[F] harness[P] new ideas and technology[C] to remake our
government[A1],// revamp our tax code[A2],// reform our schools[A3],// and
empower our citizens with the skills they need to work harder, learn more,
reach higher[A4].///
11.
///But[+]
while the means[S] will[F] change[P], our purpose[S] endures[P]: // a
nation that rewards the effort and determination of every single
American[C].///
12.
/// That[S]
is[F] what this moment requires[C].///
13.
///That[S] is[F] what will give real meaning
to our creed[C].///
14.
///We[S1],
the people[S2], still[A] believe[F/P] that every citizen deserves a basic
measure of security and dignity[C].///
15.
///We[S] must[F] make[P] the hard choices[C1]
to reduce the cost of health care and the size of our deficit[A].///
16.
///But[+] we[S] reject[F/P] the belief that
America must choose between caring for the generation that built this country//
and[+] investing in the generation that will build its future[C].///
17.
/// For[+] we[S] remember[F/P] the lessons of
our past[C],// when twilight years were spent in poverty and[+] parents of a
child with a disability had nowhere to turn[A].///
18.
///We[S] do
not[F] believe[P] that in this country freedom is reserved for the lucky,// or
happiness for the few[C].///
19.
///We[S] recognize[F/P] that no matter how
responsibly we live our lives, any one of us at any time may face a job loss, a
sudden illness, or a home swept away in a terrible storm[C].///
20.
///The
commitments we make to each other through Medicare and Medicaid and Social
Security[S1],// these things[S2] do not[F] sap[P] our initiative[C],// they[S]
strengthen[F/P] us[C].///
21.
/// They[S] do not[F] make[P] us[C] a nation of
takers[C];
22.
// they[S] free[F/P] us[C] to take the risks that
make this country great[A].///
Discussion
The
analysis shows that all four (4) cohesive devices (reference, repetition,
ellipsis and conjunction) occurred in Obama’s speech. Examples of their usage
are seen below:
Reference:
Several references were found in Obama’s speech. Examples of
such references include:
(30). We
are true to our creed when a little girl born into the bleakest poverty
knows that she has the same chance to succeed as anybody else because she
is an American; she is free, and she is equal...
(7). For
history tells us that while these truths may be self-evident, they’ve never
been self-executing; that while freedom is a gift from God, it
must be secured by His people here on Earth.
Repetition
:
This
is the repetition of words in a text for expressive purposes. Several words
were repeated in the speech. ‘We’ which occurred sixty-one (61) times was the
most frequently repeated word. Examples are as follows:
(29). We
know that America thrives when every person can find independence...
(30). We
are true to our creed when a little girl is born into the bleakest poverty...
Conjunction:
They help in linking words, phrases, clauses and sentences
together in the speech. This is the most frequently used cohesive device in the
speech. This is seen in the following examples.
(
12). We
made ourselves anew and vowed to move forward together.
(
30). We
are true to our creed when a little girl is born into the bleakest
poverty...
Ellipsis:
This is the omission of a word or words where the
subsequent word has the same reference as the first. Examples of ellipses in
the speech are as follows:
(
27). For we,
the people, understand that our country
(42). The
commitments we make to each other through Medicare and Medicaid and
Social
Security
, these things do not sap our initiative, they strengthen us.
In terms of
Interpersonal metafunction, all the sentences in speech are declarative. The
declarative mood helps the speaker to be able to express his point of view and
send his message. It also shortened the distance between the speaker and the
listener/reader. The Interpersonal Metafunction helps maintain the relationship
between the speaker/writer and the listener/reader to express the speaker’s
viewpoint.
Conclusion
One
can conclude that Halliday’s Metafunctions play a very important role in showing
unity and cohesion
in the speech and also help maintain the relationship between the
speaker/writer and the listener/reader to express the speaker’s viewpoint
. Halliday’s
metafunctions therefore provide a technical explanation of Barack Obama’s
speech.
References
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Dickenson, P. (2009). A Systemic Linguistic Analysis of Two
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Halliday, M.A.K. (1975). Learning
How to Mean. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1985).
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Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An
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Halliday, M. A. K. and Hasan, R. (1989). Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic
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Maraniss, D. (2013). Barack
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www.wikipedia.com/barackobama/2014/
Matthiessen, C. (1995) Lexico-Grammatical
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Khany, R. &
Zohre, H. (2014). “A Systemic
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Social and Behavioral Sciences
98, 917-924.
Wang, J. (2010). “A Critical Discourse Analysis of Barack
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