Kalma A Mahangar Malaman Harshe: Takaitaccen Tsokaci

Citation: Muhammad, I.A. and Umar, M.M. (2024). ‘Kalma’ A Mahangar Malaman Harshe: Taƙaitaccen Tsokaci. Ginshiƙin Nazarin Salon Waƙoƙin Hausa, 198-204. www.doi.org/10.36349/djhs.2024.v03i01.023.

‘KALMA’ A MAHANGAR MALAMAN HARSHE: TAƘAITACCEN TSOKACI

Isah Abdullahi Muhammad

Muhammad Mustapha Umar

Department of Nigerian Languages, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto

Tsakure:

Tattaunawa a kan abin da ya shafi ‘kalma’, batu ne wanda manyan malamai suka fi yin magana a kan sa. Daga ciki akwai Aronoff (1976) da Bauer (1983) da Katamba (1994) da Haspelmath (2011). A Hausa ma, malamai ba su ba batun wata kulawa ba. A taƙaice, wannan maƙala za ta mayar da hankali ne a kan ‘kalma’ kawai, don cike wannan giɓi. Da farko an fara da kawo ma’anarta wadda aka fi amfani da mizani na zahiri wajen bayyana ma’anarta da nau’o’inta da matsayinta da siffofin kalma a Hausa da kuma yadda ake nazarin ta. Sakamakon wannan nazari ya fito da ma’anar kalma da nau’o’inta da matsayinta da siffofin kalma a Hausa da kuma yadda ake nazarin ta.

Fitilun Kalmomi: kalma, ma’anarta, nau’o’inta, matsayinta, siffofinta

Gabatarwa

Muhimman tubala da ake nazari a ilimin harshe, su ne: Ƙwayoyin sauti da ƙwayoyin kalma da kalmomi da yankunan jumla da kuma jumloli. Abin da wannan binciken ya mayar wa hankali, shi ne, ‘kalma’. Batu ne wanda manyan malamai suka fi yin magana a kan sa. A cikin ayyukan nazarin harshen Hausa, musamman a fagen ƙirar kalma, kamar na Abubakar (2000) da Sani (2002) da Amfani (2007) da Fagge (2013) babu wadataccen bayani a kan ‘kalma’. Amma can baya Mamman (1987) ya kawo ma’anar kalma a taƙaice, da wasu siffofin kalma a Hausa.Haƙiƙa kalma, muhimmin tubali ne na ginin kowane harshe. Ganin matsayi da muhimmancinta a nazarin harshe, ya sa aka ba da fage sukutum! Da ake nazarin kalma. Da Ingilishi, shi ne ‘Morphology’, da Hausa kuma, ‘Ilimin ƙirar kalma’. Asali ‘kalma’ larabci ce, inda ake ake nufin lafazi ɗaya mai ma’ana^[1]. Da Ingilishi, ana kiran ta ‘word’.

Zancen sanin ma’anar ‘kalma’ abu ne wanda ko a matakin kimiyyar harshe babu bakandamiyar ma’ana ɗaya da za a ce, ita ce kalma a dukkan harsuna. Wannan ya faru ne a dalilin shu’umcinta a wajen bayyana ma’anarta. Wannan ya sa cikin gogaggun masana ƙirar kalma Bauer (1983), yake cewa duk abin da masu harshe suka aminta da shi a matsayin kalma, shi ne kalma. Saboda irin matsalar da ta haifar ya sa malaman ilimin ƙirar kalma, suke kauce mata ta hanyar ƙirƙiro wasu keɓaɓɓun kalmomi a nazarinsu. Kamar uwar kalma (lexeme) da sigar kalma (word form) da tushen kalma (stem). Ba abu ne ɓoyayye ba a kimiyyar harshe, kasancewar kalma a matsayin wata matsala mai wuyar sha’ani. Wataƙila, wannan ne babban dalilin da ya sa akasarin malaman ƙirar kalma a Hausa, ba su farawa da bayanin kalma, kafin su tsunduma cikin nazarin ƙirar kalma, gudun ruɗar da ɗalibai.

A taƙaice, wannan maƙala za ta tattauna ne a kan ‘kalma’, a mahangar malaman harshe. Nazarin zai fara da ma’anar kalma da nau’o’inta da matsayinta da siffofinta a Hausa da kuma yadda ake nazarin ta. Don sauƙaƙa gabatarwar, an kasa maƙalar zuwa waɗannan sassa: Gabatarwa da kalma a mahangar malaman harshe. Ƙarƙashinsa akwai, ma’anar kalma da nau’o’inta da matsayinta da siffofin kalma a Hausa da kuma yadda ake nazarin ta. Sai a kawo sakamakon nazari da kammalawa.

‘Kalma’ A Mahangar Malaman Harshe

Harshe wata tsararriyar hanyar sadarwa ce ta ɗan adam. Tubalan da suka gina maganar da mutum yake yi, ya ƙunshi: sautuka da kalmomi da kuma jumloli tare da ma’anar da suke ƙunshe da ita. Wannan kalmomi suna daga cikin muhimman tubalan ginin maganar ɗan adam. To, wai mene ne kalma?

Ma’anar Kalma

Asali ‘kalma’ ararriya ce daga harshen larabci. A cikin larabci tana nufin, lafazi ɗaya wanda yake da ma’ana. Lafazin yana iya kasancewa suna ko aikatau ko kuma harafi (Jaarimi & Amin, 1973). A wurin malaman harshe, ba abu ne mai sauƙi ba, bayyana ma’anar kalma.

Bauer (1983:8) ya ce:

‘The definition of the word has been for a long time, a major problem for linguistic theory’

Fassarar marubuci:

‘Ma’anar kalma wata matsala ce mai daɗaɗɗen tarihi a ra’in ilimin ƙimiyyar harshe’

Spencer (1991:41) ya jaddada wannan magana da cewa:

The whole chapter 1 was concerned with words, their formation and their inflection, yet we have not explained what a word is and how one is to be recognized. This is far from being trivial question; indeed, it is one of the most difficult and important problems in morphological theory.

Fassarar marubuci:

Babi na ɗayan gaba ɗayansa, ya mayar da hankali ne a kan kalmomi, yadda ake gininsu da kumburarsu, amma kuma ba a yi bayani ba a kan abin da ake nufi da kalma da yadda za a gane ta in aka gan ta. Tabbas! Tambaya ce mai ma’ana, amma haƙiƙa, batu ne mai wuyar sha’ani matuƙa, a cikin ra’in nazarin ƙirar kalma.

Haka ma, Spencer (2006:101) shi me yana cewa:

‘The concept of ‘word’ is notoriously difficult to pin down’

Fassarar marubuci:

‘Batun ma’anar kalma al’amari ne mai wahala wajen tabbatarwa’

Alal misali, a Ƙamusun Hausa shafi 227-228, an ba da ma’anar kalma, da:

‘Ƙwayar lafazi ko furuci mai cikakkiyar ma’ana’

Idan aka ɗora wannan ma’ana a bisa faifan nazari, za a ga cewa ‘kalma’ ba ƙwayar furuci ba ce. Misali:

·         gidaa

·         noomaa

Waɗannan dukkansu kalmomi ne, masu ƙunshe da lafuzza ko furuci guda huɗu-huɗu. Wato furucin [g], [i], [d], [aa], [n], [oo], [m], [aa]. Wataƙila, sai dai a ce wani ‘yanki’ ko ‘sashe’ ko ‘tubali’ na magana. Sannan duk a ciki, an siffanta kalma ‘mai cikakkiyar ma’ana’. A fahintar malaman harshe ba dole ba ne kalma, ta kasance mai ma’ana (content) tana iya zuwa mai wani aiki na nahawu (functional). Misali:

·         Ali yaa tafi makaranta

A nan ‘Ali’ da ‘tafi’ da ‘makaranta’, duk suna da ma’ana, kuma sun fito ne daga azuzuwan kalmomi daban-daban. Amma ‘ya’, ba wata ma’ana take da ita ba, aikin da take yi, shi ne fayyace sunan da ya gabace ta, ta fuskar ‘jinsi’, da ‘adadi’, da ‘mutum’ da ’muhalli’^[2].  Mamman (1987:1) yana cewa:

“An fassara kalma a matsayin zance maI cikakken ‘yanci kamilalle, wadda take iya dogara da kanta a cikin jumla ta kuma yi ma’ana”.

Idan aka duba ma’anar da kyau, za a lura cewa ba kowa ce kalma take da ‘yanci ba, domin akwai kama ɗafi ‘clitics’, kamar ‘-r’da ‘ta’, ko ‘-n’ da ‘na’. Haka ma, akwai ‘a’ a matsayin harafi, kuma a matsayin kalma in ta fito a cikin jumla, za ta iya ba da ma’ana ne kawai, in an haɗa ta da wata kalma. Misali:

·         a kan kujera.

Haka ma, Bunza (2002:xx) yana cewa:

‘Kalma: Cunkoson baƙi da wasali wuri ɗaya don su ba da ma’ana ɗaya, misali “mutum”, ”Yaro”’

Akwai wasu kalmomi a Hausa, waɗanda ba su ƙunshe da cunkoson baƙin da waslin, tsintsar wasula ne ko baƙaƙe kawai. Misali:

·         a kan teburi

·         dokin Ali ne da doki na Ali ne.

·         rigar Kande ce riga ta Kande ce.

A misalan da suke sama, an ga inda harafin wasalin ‘a’ ya zo a matsayin kalma, haka ma ‘-n’ da ‘-r’ a matsayin kalmomin ‘na’ da ‘ta’ (Skinner, 1977: 74-75, Anderson, 2005, Spencer, 2012,). Wannan yana ƙara fito muna da shu’umcin kalma a bayyane. To wai wace ma’ana za a bai wa ‘kalma’?

 Ga ta bakin Bauer (1983:9) inda yake cewa:

...whatever a word is, it is not the same thing in all languages: it may not be possible to provide, for this sense of ‘word’, a definition which is valid in all languages except ‘a word is what native speakers think a word is’ (see Matthews, 1972:§7-5). Such a definition would not be of any great value in linguistic analysis’

Fassarar marubuci:

‘...duk abin da ake nufi da kalma, tabbas! Ba abu ce mai siffa ɗaya a duk harsuna ba, ba zai yiwu a samar da wata bakandamiyar ma’ana, wadda za ta game dukkan harsuna ba, sai wata ma’ana hana-rantsuwa, inda aka ce ‘ kalma dai ita ce wadda masu harshe suka aminta da kasancewarta kalma’ (Don karin bayani, a duba littafin Matthews (1972, babi na 5 zuwa 7). Sai dai kash! Wannan ma’ana lami ce a fagen nazarin kimiyyar harshe’

A ra’ayin Di Scuillo & Williams (1987) sun nuna, ana iya ba da ma’anar kalma ce kawai ta fuskar siffofinta. Inda suka kawo siffofi uku da kalma take iya zuwa da su cikin harshe. Kamar haka:

a.      kalma a matsayin mai ƙunshe da tubalan ƙwayoyin kalma (morphological objects).

b.      kalma a matasayin tubalin ‘yantacce na ginin jumla (syntactic units).

c.       kalma a matsayin jerin gwanon kalmomi (listeme).

Haka ma, a Haspelmath (2011) ya kawo hanyoyi har takwas da malaman harshe suka fi amfani da su, wajen ba da ma’anar ‘kalma’. Kamar:

a.      ma’ana

b.      tsarin sauti

c.       ƙa’idojin rubutu

d.     ƙirar kalma da ginin jumla

e.      fahimtar masu harshe

f.        shu’umci

g.      yadda take zuwa a cikin harshe

h.      gwada duka waɗannan sharuɗa

Wataƙila, wannan fahimta ce ta yi tasiri a kan Anderson (2015:12) har yake bai wa kalma wannan ma’ana:

‘...a word is a fundamentally a unit of mutual association among several sorts properties ‘

Fassarar marubuci:

‘...kalma tubali ce ta gamin-gambiza daga abubuwa daban-daban’

Haspelmath (2023:285) yana cewa:

“A word is (i) a free morph, or (ii) clitics, or (iii) a root or a compound possibly augmented by nonrequired affixes and augmented by required affixes if there any”

Fassarar marubuci:

“Kalma ita ce (i) ‘yantacciyar ƙwayar kalma ko (ii) kama-ɗafi ko (iii) saiwa ko kuma harɗantawa mai iya zuwa tare da ɗofanen da ya dace, idan akwai”

A ƙarshe, daga abin da aka fahinta daga bayanin magabata, ana iya cewa: ‘kalma’ wata tubali ce ta ginin magana a harshe, wadda ake samarwa ta hanyar karo-karo. Sannan ba a sami wata musantawa ba daga harshe ko masu harshe ko kuma ilimin harshe.

Nau’o’in Kalma

Masana sun kasa kalmomi ta fuskoki daban-daban. Da farko akwai kalma sassauƙa da mai sarƙaƙiya. Misali, kamar:

·         bi da biyayya

·         ƙi da ƙiyayya

·         so da soyayya

A nan, kalmomin ‘bi’ da ‘ƙi’ da ‘so’, dukkansu sassauƙa ne sun ƙunshi ƙwayoyin kalma ɗaya-ɗaya. Amma, amma ‘biyayya’ da ‘ƙiyayya’ da ‘soyayya’. Dukkansu masu sarƙaƙiya ne, domin kowace kalma tana ƙunshe da ƙwayoyin kalma fiye da ɗaya. Kalmar ‘biyayya’, tana ƙunshe da ‘bi’, sannan ɗafin tsirau da aka liƙa mata wato ‘-yayya’. Haka abin yake ga sauran kalmomi, wato kamar ga ‘ƙi’, da ɗafin ‘-yayya’, sai ‘so’, da ‘-yayya’. Wannan ya nuna cewa a fasalin ginin kalmomin Hausa, ana samun haɗuwar yantacciyar kalma da turkakkiya cikin kalma ɗaya ko kuma turkakku tsintsa ko kuma ‘yantattu tsintsa. 

 Har wa yau, akan sami kalmomi masu buɗaɗɗen tsari da masu rufaffen tsari. Masu buɗaɗɗen tsari, kalmomi ne waɗanda a kullum suke samun ƙaruwar baƙuwar sabuwar kalma. Misali kamar, suna da aikatau. Su ko masu rufaffen tsari, ya haɗa da kalmomi waɗanda har abada ba su samun ƙaruwar sabuwar kalma a cikinsu. Kamar wakilin suna da mallaka ko nasaba.

Malaman ƙirar kalma, sun ƙirƙiro wasu keɓaɓɓun kalmomin nazari, saboda rikicin da ‘kalma’ ta haddasa wajen nazari. Waɗannan kalmomi, sun ƙunshi: Uwar kalma (lexeme) da sigar kalma (word form) da tushen kalma (stem) da samammiyar kalma (existent word) da kuma ƙiyastacciyar kalma (possible word). Dukkansu nau’o’in kalmomi ne a nazarin ƙirar kalma. Uwar kalma a nazarin ƙirar kalma wata nau’in kalma ce wadda take a baɗini (wadda ba a gani), amma kuma ita ce tushen waɗanda ake gani a zahiri a matsayin kalmomi. Ana rubuta ta da manyan kalmomi. Misali:

·         YARO

·         yaro

·         yarinya

·         yara

A waɗannan misalai da suke a sama, wadda aka rubuta da manyan baƙaƙe ce uwar kalma. Sauran kuma, sigoginta ne na zahiri, tilonsu ‘sigar kalma’. A lura cewa ita sigar kalma, ana samar da ita ne ta fuskar ‘adadi’ wato yaro da yara, ko kuma ta fuskar jinsi, yaro da yarinya. Ita ko tushen kalma ita ce kamannin farko na kalma. Misali, kalmar ‘yaro’ babu wata kalma da za a ce an tsago ta ne daga wurinta. Amma, idan aka ce ‘yarinya’ ko ‘yara’, waɗannan kam, ana iya cewa daga ‘yaro’ ne aka fitar da su. Ita ko samammiyar kalma, kalma da take a taskace cikin rumbun harshe. Misali ‘kwalba’, samammiyar kalma ce. Amma, ‘kwalbe’ ko ‘kwalbewa’, ƙiyastattu ne, ba dole ba ne a same su cikin rumbun kalmomin Hausa. Wato dai, ƙirƙirarru ne daga baya. Duk kasancewar asalinsu daga ‘kwalba’ ne. A ƙarshe kuma, ana raba kalmomi zuwa azuzuwan kalmomi. Musamman suna da aikatau da masu yi musu hidima.

Matsayin Kalma da Siffofinta

 Nazarin kalmomi da jumloli, shi ne abin da nahawu kowane harshe ya ƙunsa a taƙaice (Amfani, 2007).Wannan ya nuna kalma a matsayin wani muhimmin ginshiƙi daga cikin ginshiƙan nahawu. Har wa yau, manyan abubuwan da ake nazari a harshe, su ne ‘sautuka’ da ‘kalmomi’ da ‘jumloli’. Wannan ya nuna kalma a matsayin babban tubalin da ake nazari cikin harshe. Malaman ilimin ƙirar kalma (Kamar Haspelmath, 2002) sun nuna idan aka kalli fasalin kalmomin harsunan duniya, ana iya kasu su gida biyu: Masu wararrun kalmomi (analytic) da masu ƙulallun kalmomi (synthetic)^[3]. Wannan ya danganta a kan adadin ƙwayoyin kalma da ake samu a cikin kowace kalma ɗaya. Inda aka sami kowace ƙwayar ma’ana a matsayin ƙwayar kalma ɗaya, da Ingilishi, ita ce ‘agglutinating’. Inda aka sami ƙwayar kalma ɗaya da tarin ma’anoni, to, sai a kira shi da Ingilishi ‘fusional’. In kuma, aka sami harshe a cikin kalma ɗaya, ana iya cire ƙwayoyin kalma daban-daban, to kuma, ana ce masa ‘polysynthetic’.

Idan aka waiwayi kalmomin Hausa, a zahiri, suna zuwa ne da siffa biyu: Siffa ta asali da siffa ta musamman. Misali: ‘gida’ da ‘kama’, da ‘fari’ da ‘duƙe’ kalmomi ne masu siffa ta asali. Amma, ‘a’ da ‘fari-fari’, tuma-ƙasa da ‘agwagwa-da-buje’ da ‘a-kori-kura’, dukkansu kalmomi ne amma masu siffa ta musamman.  

Yadda Ake Nazarin ‘Kalma’

Masana ilimin ƙirar kalma sun shimfiɗa hanyoyin huɗu na nazarin kalma, kamar haka:

a.      Hanyar bayanin ƙwayoyin kalma.

b.      Hanyar bayanin siga da ma’ana.

c.       Hanyar bayanin matsayin kalma ta fuskar tsira da kumbura.

d.     Hanyoyin da aka bi wajen ƙera kalma (Abubakar 2000, Haspelmath 2002, Aronoff & Fudemann 2005, Muhammad 2022).

Hanya ta farko, wato nazarin kalma ta amfani da tubalin ‘ƙwayar kalma’. Inda ake fitar da ƙwayoyin kalma ɗaya bayan ɗaya, tare da bayanin aikin da suke yi da kuma hukunce-hukunce na wasu fannonin ilimin harshe ko ma waɗanda ba harshe ba a wajen ginin kalma. Misali:

·         daidaitaawarsu

a.      Wannan kalma, tana ƙunshe da ƙwayoyin kalma har guda biyar. Ta farko, /daidai-/, ‘yantacciyar ƙwayar kalma ‘yar ajin suna mai nuni ga abin da yake kishiyar kure. Sannan alamar ‘–‘^[4], tana nuna gurbin da ake wa kalma ƙari. Da Ingilishi, ana ce masa ‘Pivot’^[5]. Sai /-taa-/, ɗafa-ƙeya ne, kuma a nan, ya yi aikin mayar sun ‘daidai’ zuwa aikatau ‘daidaitaa’. Sai kuma, ɗafa-ƙeya na biyu wato /-waa-/, wanda yake aikin mayar da aikatau suna. Wannan ya sa ake kiran sa da suna ɗan aikatau (deverbal noun). Bayansa, akwai harafin kama-ɗafi /-r-/^[6] mai aikin nuna mallaka. Sai rufaffen ɗafi wato ƙwayar kalma da take nuna masu mallakar wato /-su/. An ce masa rufaffen ɗafi ne, saboda babu sauran ɗafin da za a ƙara  a kan sa.

b.      Sai kuma bayanin kalma, ta la’akari da ‘siga’ da ‘ma’ana’. Siga da Ingilishi ita ce ‘form’. Ita ko ‘ma’ana’ ‘meaning’. Idan aka haɗa su, a wuri ɗaya, sai a ce ‘form and meaning’. Sannan an fi yin irin wannan nazari ne a wajen yin bayanin kumbura.

Misali:

·         yaaroo

·         yaarinyaa

·         yaaraa

Idan aka dubi waɗannan misalai na kalmomi da kyau, za a ga cewa, dukkansu sun yi tarayya ta fuskar ‘saiwa’ /yaar-/. Inda suka bambanta a ƙarshensu. Domin ta farko, ta ƙare ne da ɗafin /-oo/. Ta biyu, ta ƙare ne da ɗafin /-inyaa/. Ta uku, ta ƙare ne da ɗafin /-aa/. Wannan ne ya bambanta su ta fuskar siga da kuma ma’anar kanta. Domin, ɗafin /-oo/, yana aikin nuna adadin tilo da jinsin namiji, kuma shi ne madubi ga abin da zai biyo gaba. Haka ma, ɗafin /-inyaa/ mai aikin nuna adadin tilo amma jinsin mace. Sai kuma ɗafin /-aa/, mai aikin nuna jam’i. Wannan ne bayani ta fuskar siga da ma’ana. A kodayaushe, a wannan hanyar nazarin ana kallon bambanci da tasirin da bambancin siga ya haifar.

c.       Hanyar nazari ta la’akari da ‘tsira’ da ‘kumbura’, ana lura ne da matsayin da kalma ta sami kanta ta waɗannan rassa na ilimin ƙirar kalma. Misali:

·         yaaroo da yaaraa

·         yaaroo da yaarantaa

A waɗannan misalai, layin farko ‘yaaroo da yaaraa’, kalmar ‘yaaroo’ ce ta kumbura ta fuskar adadi (tilo ko jam’i) daga tilo zuwa jam’i. Kuma ƙaramar kumbura ce wadda take faruwa a matakin kalma ( Booij, 2007). Ita ko ‘yaroo da yarantaa’, tsira ce ta fuskar ma’ana. Inda aka sami sabuwar ma’ana daga mutum wanda yake a zahiri zuwa ɗabi’a wadda take a ɓoye (Scalise, 1984).

d.     Sai kuma ta ƙarshe, nazarin kalma ta la’akari hanyoyin da aka bi wajen samar da kalma. Misali:

·         yaarantaa

·         kaciici-kaciici

·         aikin-baban-giwa

Idan aka ba da irin waɗannan jinsin kalmomi, hanyar da aka bi wajen gina su. Ta farko, asalin kalmar ‘yaaroo’ ne, sai aka cire ɗafin ‘-oo’, sai aka maƙala ɗafin ‘-antaa’. Sai aka tayar da ginin kalmar ‘yaarantaa’. Ita ko ‘kaciici-kaciici’, cikakken ninki ne (complete reduplication), inda aka maimaita kalmar ‘kaciici’. Ita ko kalmar ‘aikin-baban-giwa’, harɗaɗɗiyar kalma ce (compound word), inda aka ɗauko kalmomi daban-daban, aka gina kalma ɗaya.

Wannan ya nuna a nazarin ƙirar kalma, duk wata kalma da za yi nazarin ta, ya kamata a lura da hanyar da ya fi dacewa a bi a yi nazarin ta. Wato hanyar da za ta fito da fa’idojin da za a ƙaru da su.

Sakamakon Nazari

1.      Wannan nazari ya fito da sarƙaƙiyar da take cikin bayyana ma’anar kalma. Kamar yadda malaman harshe suka nuna.

2.      Ta fito da ma’anar kalma.

3.      A rattabo nau’in kalma.

4.      An bayyana matsayi da siffofin kalma a Hausa.

5.      An fito da yadda ake nazarin kalma a ilimin ƙirar kalma.

Kammalawa

Wannan maƙala ta yi bayani ne a kan ‘kalma’ a mahangar malaman harshe. An yi wannan bayani ne domin cike giɓi. Saboda ba a cika kawo irin wannan batu ba, a cikin ayyukan magabata. An fara da gabatarwa, ciki an bayyana ma’anar kalma da nau’o’inta da matsayinta da siffofinta da ma yadda ake nazarin ta a fagen nazarin ilimin ƙirar kalma. Nazarin ya fito da sarƙaƙiyar da take tattare da ba da ma’anar kalma. Sannan maƙalar ta kawo ma’anar kalma da nau’o’inta sai kuma yadda ake nazarin ta, ƙarshe kammalawa ce.

Manazarta

Abubakar, A. (2001). An Introductory Hausa Morphology. Maiduguri: University of Maiduguri.

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[1] Ina godiya ƙwarai ga Dr. Aliyu Malami wanda ya ƙara mini haske a kan ma’anar kalma a Larabci.

[2] Mutum ‘Person’, muhalli kuwa ‘location’.

[3] Akwai bayanai daban-daban a kan wannan kason da aka yi kalmomin harsunan duniya. Ƙalubalen da ake fuskanta wajen wannan kashe-kashen, shi ne akan sami harshe ɗaya, yana nuna halayya daban-daban, sai a kasa gane inda za a sanya a harshe.

[4] Alama ce da ake amfani da ita, wajen nuna iyakar ƙwayar kalma.

[5] Kamar yadda ya zo a Yu (2003, 2007)

[6] An kira shi ne da ‘kama-ɗafi’, yakan zo ne da siffa biyu, yakan zo da siifar ɗafi ‘-r’, ko cikakkiyar kalmar ‘ta’. Domin ana iya cewa ko daidataawarsu ce ko kuma, daidaitaawa tasu ce