The Economy of Wudil Territory in Pre-Colonial Era

Cite this article: Zubairu, N. I. 2023. The Economy of Wudil Territory in Pre-colonial Era. Sokoto Journal of History Vol. 12. Pp. 1-10. www.doi.org/10.36349/sokotojh.2023.v12i01.001

The Economy of Wudil Territory in Pre-Colonial Era 

Dr. Nura Isah Zubairu
Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Phone: 08065451961
Email: zinura@abu.edu.ng

Abstract 

Studies on the economies of the towns and villages that made up Kano region's economy have not been exhausted. It is against this background that this paper examines the economy of Wudil territory in the pre-colonial era as a contribution to the continuous study on the economy of Kano region. The paper argues that agriculture was the mainstay of the economy of the area. However, other economic activities such as smithing, weaving, dyeing, leather work, pottery were equally practiced in the area. The paper also argues that these economic activities contributed to the economic development of the area in particular and Kano region in general during the period under review. The paper relies on oral interviews, archival materials and other secondary texts. The paper concludes that the development of these economic activities in the area, promoted the emergence and development of markets and traders. This led to the development of trade and commerce in the area.

Keywords: Economy, Wudil, Territory, Pre-colonial and Era

Introduction

Economic activities are among the various and earliest forms of human activities that have thrived over the years in different societies. These activities were mainly practiced for the purpose of satisfying human needs; as such they have no doubt contributed to a large extent to the development of these societies. Kano, for example, is one of these societies that have developed over the years as a result of the economic activities of its people. By the 19^th century it was considered the major economic centre of the Sokoto Caliphate. Kano was the leading southern port of the Trans-Saharan Trade and the commercial centre connecting the West African Sahel zone with north and central Africa. This came about in consequence of the various economic activities which were practiced by the people of the various towns and villages that made up the Kano region. This paper is therefore; set to examine the economic activities of Wudil town and its surrounding localities as component parts that made up Kano region and subsequently Kano Emirate.

Geographical Background of the Area

Wudil territory is located on the South-eastern part of Kano Emirate, in an area described by Abdullahi Mahadi as the south-eastern region of Kasar Kano^[1]. Presently, the area consists of four local government areas namely; Wudil, Garko, Sumaila and Takai. The area was blessed with fertile soil and abundant sources of water which encouraged human settlement and promoted economic activities in various forms. The soil of the area contains significant quantity of silt or clay and small proportion of organic matter which was distributed throughout its profile.^[2] Similarly, being situated in an area with prevalence of granitic rocks, the soil was also richer in mineral contents.^[3] River Wudil and river Dudduru were the most important sources of water in the area. The area was also characterized by the Sudan Savannah vegetation and some elements of Northern Guinea Savannah vegetation.^[4] It borders the southernmost portion of the sudano-sahel region. The Savannah zone is known for grains production while Guinea Savannah and Forest zones are well known for crop production.

The Economy of Wudil territory in pre-colonial period was characterized by various types of economic activities ranging from agriculture which comprised farming and animal husbandry, fishing, and various forms of craft production such as blacksmithing, dyeing, carving, tanning, weaving, embroidery, pottery, mat-making and so on, which were practiced by the people in order to sustain their lives. The proliferation of these economic activities promoted trading activities of both internal and external dimension. These economic activities were practiced by the people in such a way that production was organized on the basis of households. Individual households organized and controlled the production of livestock, farm produce and manufactured goods. Alongside these there were professional guilds in such trades as smithing, dyeing, and building construction.

Agriculture

Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy of the area and employed the majority of the population. Land was the most important factor of production in the economy of the area. The land of Kano region where Wudil territory area is found was under the control of Wudil aristocrats.^[5] The people on their part held right of ownership which they acquired from aristocrats, particularly the village heads.^[6] This right was transferred from one person to another through inheritance, gifts, loan, pledge, sales or as debt settlements.^[7] Land was categorized into fiefdoms, slave estates; family holdings as well as commercial lands. Fiefdoms refer to official estates which were controlled by officials or territorial heads known as fief- holders.^[8] Slave estates were lands controlled by wealthy merchants and considerable hired labour was used in cultivating them.^[9] On the other hand, family holdings gandaye refer to lands held in common by free members.^[10]This practice allowed free subjects of Kano Emirate to acquire and utilize the land for agricultural purposes. The agricultural growing seasons were both the rainy and dry seasons. In the rainy season the activities normally started with the coming of the rain usually from the month of May to September. Grain production was given much prominence during the rainy season, though some farmers were engaged in dry season farming to complement what they produced during the rainy season. Grain such as millet, rice, maize and guinea corn amongst others were cultivated in the area.^[11]But dry season farming involved the cultivation of vegetable crops such as onions, tomatoes and pepper.^[12] The items produced were mainly used for both domestic consumptions, and also for commercial purposes which took the form of exchange for other items. These agricultural crops were equally sold in Kano City and beyond. It was the continuous production of these agricultural produce and other industrial products such as dye cloths that facilitated commercial exchange at both local and long-distance levels.

Animal Husbandry

Animal husbandry which is important branch of agriculture that is concerned with breeding and rearing of farm animals was also practiced by the people of Wudil area. The people were engaged in keeping domestic animals at home, breeding and rearing them for both domestic and commercial purposes. Both Fulani pastoralists and Hausa were engaged in this activity. Animal rearing thrived in Wudil area mainly due to the availability of grazing ground and the presence of various rivers such as river Wudil and river Dudduru that served as sources of water for both human and animal consumption. Animals such as goats, sheep, cattle, donkeys and other poultry such as hen, duck, and ostrich amongst others were reared.^[13] Many of these animals were used as sources of food and also as a means of exchange. One of these animals particularly the donkey, was used as a major means of transportation in the pre-colonial as well as in the colonial periods. The development of animal rearing in the area led to the emergence of a large cattle market in Wudil town where cattle dealers from neighbouring villages and also from distant places such as Ilorin and Bida came to purchase cattle.^[14] The emergence and development of this cattle market in the pre-colonial period showed the extent to which the people of the area were committed and involved in economic activities such as animal rearing and trade.

 Fishing

Fishing was also carried out by the people of Wudil especially those living around the banks of river Wudil.^[15] This activity has a long history and has been identified as one of the leading commercial activities of the people. The occupation needed specialization which made it to be conducted as a guild, regulated by Sarkin ruwa. The fishermen used hooks and nets to catch the fish. They usually sold the fish within Wudil town and to other people of neighbouring villages. The activities of these fishermen were carried out not only in river Wudil alone, but they equally extended their activities to other areas where they thought they could get more sources of fish. These fishermen travelled to distant places such as river Benue, Lake Chad and river Shiroro in order to conduct fishing activities especially during dry season.^[16] The activity of these fishermen significantly boosted the living conditions of the people by way of providing them with needed food items useful for human consumption and commercial exchange.

Local Manufacturing Sector

The people of Wudil territory were also prominent in the art of industrial production. There were several craft and cottages that flourished during the pre-colonial period. These cottages relied heavily on the other sectors of the economy most especially agricultural sector for their raw materials. These sectors included blacksmithing, dyeing, weaving, embroidery, tanning, carving, pottery and mat-making. These craft activities were carried out on a large scale and were promoted by the people of the different towns and villages of the area.

Smithing

Smithing has a long history in Kano region. It has been one of the major craft activities of Hausaland in general and Kano region in particular. In view of the fact that the economy of Kano region was essentially agricultural; smithing was instrumental in providing agricultural implements as well as the necessary weapons that were used for war purposes.^[17]In the opinion of several scholars such as Mukhtar, smithing was the most strategic sector among the various crafts in Hausaland.^[18]Smithing industry in Kano in general derives its iron ore essentially from Riruwai mines and several other areas such as Karaye, Bakori and Birnin Gwari.^[19]There were blacksmith and silversmith in Wudil territory who operate in all the major towns of the area.^[20]The products of this industry such as hoe (fartanya) sickle blade (lauje) large blade hoe (garma) axe (gatari), digging hoe (sangwami) serve as the essential implements for agricultural production. The goldsmiths/silversmiths on the other hand produced other items such as rings (zobba), mundaye (bangles) which were used as decorative objects.^[21]Indeed the products of this sector of the economy were both used in exchange for other commodities and were equally sold to people in both the neighboring towns and villages of the area and as well as far to Kano city and beyond. This affirmed Philip Shea’s view that contrary to the colonial view that the economy of Kano was subsistence, it was an economy that was not only sophisticated in nature but was tailored and oriented towards market satisfaction.^[22]

Textile Production

Textile production was another important craft activity in Wudil territory especially in the towns of Wudil, Garko, ‘Utai, Indabo, Darki, Sumaila, Dal, Sarina, Durbunde, Takai and Kachako among others. This activity was carried out through weaving, embroidery and dyeing. The craft was practiced extensively by the people of the area in almost every town and village, and it involved both men and women in the production process. Women were prominent in spinning the cotton to make thread while men were responsible for weaving the thread to produce the needed textile material.^[23] Embroidery on the other hand involved the art of stitching a decoration on fabric or similar materials with a needle and thread. This activity went hand in hand with weaving activity, as it was the textile materials produced by the weavers that were in most cases decorated by the embroiders. Both weavers, embroiders and dyers produced different types of textile materials of high quality and of aesthetic design. Example of the embroided products include the highly embroided cloth popularly known as Saki and richly embroided cloth known as Alkyabba. These products were traded in distance and near places. These decorated textile materials were worn by the wealthy, and people of authority, the aristocrats. Wearing these types of attires in Hausaland in general and Kano Emirate is a symbol of authority and influence.^[24] These materials were produced and sold both within Wudil territory, Kano city and up to distant places such as Nupeland, Borno and beyond.^[25] These activities contributed immensely to the economic development of the area as people were able to clothe themselves and also earn income through their participation in these activities.

Dyeing

This is another important handicraft industry in Wudil territory. The industry was used in beautifying and transforming textile materials that were produced in the weaving industry. Dyeing was done by the use of indigo (baba). Indigo as the major raw material used in dyeing, was planted in various towns and villages of Wudil territory. Dyeing activity was carried out mainly in a place called Karofi (dye-fit centre), that contained various dye-fits ranging from 50 to 100, defending on the population and economic importance of the town. It was reported that by the end of the nineteenth century, the number of dye-pits in Wudil District area was between 5200 and 8000.^[26] In Kachako town for example there were four different dyeing centres, these were Karofin Lemo, Karofin Gwada, Karofin Bayan Gidan Ali Batsiya, Karofin Maza Tsaye.^[27]Another important dyeing center was Dal town that specialized in the production of a particular kind of cloth known as kore gown which was sold to Kanuri of Borno.^[28] Indeed, dyeing industry transformed the textile materials into different colours such as black, blue and green that is identified with different names. The green dyed cloth was called Kore, while the blue-black dyed cloth was called Baki.^[29]It is with this that the continued development of the industry led to the emergence of a craft head or leader known as the Sarkin Marina (chief of the dyers) in all the major towns.^[30] The emergence of this title according to Professor Mahdi Adamu was essentially related with the age old tradition of the Hausa-Speaking communities which recognized and valued authority in the social life of the people.^[31] The importance of this industry made Kano Emirate Authority to charge the dyers a form of tax known as the Kudin Karofi (dye-pit tax).^[32]The emirate officials used the guild chiefs in the collection of this form of tax.^[33] This industry therefore, contributed immensely to the economic development of not only Wudil district area but Kano Emirate Economy at large.

Leather Work

Leather Work was another important industry in Wudil territory in pre-colonial period. The activity involved the use of animal skins which went through various production processes such as tanning (Jima) and later leather production (dukanci). This activity just like other industrial activities in Wudil territory such as dyeing and textile production enjoyed the availability of raw materials especially Animal skin and chemicals used in tanning such as Acacia Arabica (gabaruwa)and wood-ash (toka)that are found in large quantity in the area.^[34]

The leather workers (dukawa) of Wudil territory, especially those of Wudil town produced various leather products such as shoes of different types such as sandals, sleepers and riding boot. They also produced items such as bags which were also of different types. These included; transportation bag, (mangala), loin-cloth (warki), berber’s bag (zabira).^[35] Leather work was predominantly practiced in Garko, Wudil, Utai, Takai and Sumaila towns amongst others. The products of this industry were sold in the various local markets of the area and were equally taken to Kano city market for sale.

Pottery

 Pottery is another important economic activity practiced by the people of Wudil area. The production of pots of various sizes and shapes also vindicate the point that people of Wudil area were creative and hard working. The act of pottery- making is an age-old economic activity among the people of Hausa land in general and Wudil area in particular.^[36] Some of the prominent towns in the area that were known for this craft were Wudil, Takai, Kachako amongst others. Pottery making, involved various stages of processing, which were handled by both men and women. The activity was mainly undertaken during the dry season, as dry weather is necessary for drying the items produced. Such items include various utensils made by the potters such as pot (tukunya), frying pan (tanda) kettle (buta), smoking pipe (lofe), water cooler (tulu) and large water container (kwartanniya). Pottery making, involved five main stages of processing. These included: identification and exploitation of clay deposit, preparing the clay-mix, forming the pottery, the drying stage and firing stage. In some instances, it might even lead to the sixth stage which is the decoration stage.^[37] But the last stage is not necessary as some potters prefer leaving the pot without any decoration, depending on the needs of the time. Potters sold their products both at home, and in the various village markets of the area. They used the occupation to complement what they earned from agricultural activities. Pottery making did not only fetch income to the people of Wudil area, but also it portrayed the creativity and ingenuity of the people. This is because the act of pottery making is an industrial activity which involves the application of creative mind in the production process. The molding of the pots into different sizes and shapes is a testimony to this fact. The art of pottery making did not only promote economic activity alone but also other activities such as political and social endeavours. This is in view of the fact that the families of these potters were politically and socially bonded together to the extent that in Kano there were the Bambadawa potters in Kano City (Jingau Quarters), Wudil, Lambu, and Shanono and other places outside Kano region especially Zaria city. These potters were related in one way or the other. In the case of those in Kano they were politically under the leadership of their occupational head while in the case of those who lived outside Kano territory, they related with them through inter marriages.^[38]

Mat Making

Mat-making was practiced by the people of Wudil area in pre-colonial period. The activity was also carried out by both men and women. Mats are made from the leaves of palm fronds (Kaba) and were produced mostly for domestic use and sold at 2d. The activity continued up to colonial period when it was reported in one of the early colonial reports of the district that the mats produced in the district were sold at 2d local price and the local price was 3d in Kano market.^[39] The various type of mats produced were in different sizes and patterns and in some cases were decorated with indigo dye to make them aesthetic. Mats were also differentiated by their names and sizes. Thus, for example the big one was called Bujukura, there was Karauni and another one called YarKura. In pre-colonial period, mats were among the items that were used in decorating bride’s room.

The proliferation of the above economic activities, which developed into large scale trading activities of both internal and external dimension, were as a result of people’s efforts at various levels to the development of the economy. This was made possible due to the existence of a system of exchange that developed among the people. The people of Wudil area were initially using the barter system as a means of exchange.^[40] Thereafter, other forms of currencies such as cowries and silver dollars became the main medium of exchange. This resulted in the emergence of numerous prominent traders and merchants’ families in the various towns and villages of our area of study. It was during this time that the Agalawa and Tokarawa merchants who were well known for their commercial acumen became fully established in their bases at Garko, Sumaila, Sarina, Indabo and Utai towns of Wudil area.^[41] The presence of this group of traders did not only promote economic activities but also social activities as well. This is in view of the fact that apart from the various trading activities which the traders promoted, they equally maintained close ties especially through marriages with their relatives who were scattered in various towns and villages not only in Kano Emirate but also in Katsina and Zaria Emirates.^[42]

Trade and Commerce

The availability of goods both agricultural and manufactured, promoted internal trade among the people of the area. Trade was conducted in the various markets of the towns such as Wudil, Garko,Takai, Kachako, Dal, Darki and Dagora. Various commodities include textile materials agricultural implements and agricultural produce were bought and sold. The table below shows the market day of various towns in the area.

 

Table 1: 1 Market Days of the Various Towns of Wudil Territory in Pre-colonial Era

S/No.	Name of the Town	Market Day
1.	Dal	Monday
2.	Takai	Tuesday
3.	Darki	Thursday
4.	Wudil	Friday
5.	Dagora	Saturday
6.	Garko	Sunday
7.	Kachako	Sunday

Source: Author's Fieldwork, 2013.

From the above table it is clear that with the exception of Wednesday traders were busy throughout the week traversing the entire area in order to trade their commodities in the various markets of the territory.

There was a good system of exchange as cowries were in use by the 18^th century in Kasar Kano in general.^[43] The continued development of production and internal trade enabled many traders in Wudil territory to accumulate wealth which enabled them to participate in external trade. The people of the area especially those of Garko, Wudil and Indabo participated in the caravan trade and they travelled to different parts of West Africa on trading mission. They extended their trading mission to as far as Gwanja area.^[44]

Another important factor which promoted trade in Wudil area was the position of Kano as the major distribution centre for imports into Hausaland, in which one of the trading routes which ran from Kano to south-east passes through the area to Bauchi and Adamawa areas.^[45] The way and manner in which this trading route passed through the area provided the people of the area with the opportunity to access numerous imported goods and also to sell their manufactured goods. This situation also enabled the people of the area to venture into external trade. This is in view of the fact that traders that passed through this route were likely to have stopped at their resting points (Zango) along the route which served as an avenue of establishing trade relation.

Conclusion

The paper has discussed the nature and the various types of economic activities that thrived in Wudil area in pre-colonial period. It has shown that agriculture was the main stay of the economy as most of the people of the area were involved in agricultural activity. This is because they were either involved in crop production or engaged in animal rearing. Similarly, other forms of economic activities such as fishing and craft production which involved smithing, weaving, embroidery, dyeing, leather work, pottery and mat making were equally discussed. The paper argued that it was the proliferation of these economic activities in the area that promoted the emergence and development of markets and traders. This had in no small measure contributed to the development of trade and commerce and it on the whole led to the development of indigenous productive forces.

 

 

References

Published Materials:

Adamu, M.U. Confluences and Influences: The Emergence of Kano as a City State, Kano: Munawwara Books Foundation, 1999.

Adamu, M. The Hausa Factor in West African History, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1978.

Bello, S.State and Economy in Kano c.1894 to 1960: A Study of Colonial Domination, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 2011.

Fika, A.M.The Kano Civil War and British Over-Rule,1882-1940, Oxford University Press, London, 1978.

Gwadabe, M.M.Kano Emirate Under Colonial Rule: A Study of the Administration of Land, Labour and Taxation in Kumbotso District, 1916-1953, Germany: DVM Publishers, 2010.

Lovejoy, P.E. Caravans of Kola: The Hausa Kola Trade, 1700-1900, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1980.

Mukhtar, M.I. The Impact of British Colonial Domination on Kano: C.1903 to 1950 A.D: A Study of Colonial Change, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University, Press, 2013.

Mukhtar, T.M.“Blacksmithing Industry in Sokoto Region in the Nineteenth Century”, Lapai Journal of Central Nigeria History, Department of History and Archaeology, Ibrahim BadamasiBabangida University, Lapai, Niger State,.3 no.1and 2, 2009.

Olofin, E.A. “Human Responses to the Natural Environment in the Kano Region” In Kano and Some of Her Neighbors, edited by Bawuro M. Barkindo, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1989.

Sani, B.M. “An Appraisal of existing credit facilities to the fishery sub-sector: A Case Study of Wudil and Bagwai Fishing Zones in Kano State” Kano Studies, a Journal of Savannah and Sudanic Research, Bayero University, Kano, 1 no.2, 2003.

Hill, P. Population, Prosperity and Poverty: Rural Kano, 1900-1970, London: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

Shea,P.J. “Approaching the Study of Production in Rural Kano”, In Studies in the History of Kano edited by Bawuro Mubi Barkindo, Ibadan:Heinemann,1983.

Shea, P.J. “The Establishment of The Colonial Economy in Kano” In Perspectives on Kano-British Relations edited by M.O. Hambolu, Kano: Gidan Makama Museum, 2003.

Unpublished Materials:

Ahmed, I. “Potting in Kano City and Wudil Town”, B.A Dissertation, Department of History, Bayero University, Kano, 1981.

Edward, P.J. “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate: Selected Studies, 1804-1903”, PhD Thesis, Los Angeles: University of California, 1992.

Ma’aji, S.D. “History of Wudil Town to 1970”, B.A Dissertation, Kano: Bayero University,1993.

Mahadi, A. “The State and the Economy in Kano: The Sarauta System and its Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano with particular Reference to the 18^th and 19^thCentury”, PhD Thesis, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University, 1983.

 Ferguson, D. E. “Imam Imoru: Nineteenth Century Hausaland; Being a Description of the Land and Society of His People”, PhD Thesis, Los Angeles: University of California, 1973.

Archival Materials:

NAK/KanProf/63/442/12/Makama District Assessment Report

List of informants:

Interview with Malam Inuwa Mai Tafsiri, 70 Years old, in Kachako Town, on 12^th November, 2013.

Interview with Alhaji AbdullahGarun Ali, 76 Years, in Garun Ali Town, on 11^th January, 2014.

Interview with Alhaji Zakariyau Sa’aduWudil, 81 Years, in Wudil Town on 21^st April, 2013.

Interview with Malam Adamu Idrisu Utai, 90 Years, in Utai on 7^th July, 2013.

Interview with Alhaji Ahmadu Ibrahim Dal, 67 Years, in Dal Town on 5^th January 2014.

Interview with Malam, 70 Years, in Durbunde Town on 12^th November, 2013.

Interview with Alhaji Salihu Ibrahim Kachako, 80 Years, in Kachako Town on 12^th November, 2013.

 

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[1]Abdullahi Mahadi, “The State and the Economy in Kano: The Sarauta System and its Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano”, PhD Thesis, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University, (1982), p.78.

[2] Ibid., p.69.

[3]Ibid.

[4] Emanuel Ajayi Olofin, “Human Responses to the Natural Environment in the Kano Region” in Kano and Some of Her Neighbors, ed. Bawuro Mubi Barkindo(Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1989), p.9.

[5]Muhammadu Mustapha Gwadabe, Kano Emirate Under Colonial Rule: A Study of the Administration of Land, Labour and Taxation in Kumbotso District, 1916-1953,(Germany: DVM Publishers, 2010), 20.

[6]Sule Bello, State and Economy in Kano: C. 1894 to 1960: A Study of Colonial Domination,(Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University, Press, 2011), p. 24.

7 Ibid.

[8]Ibid., P.17.

[9] Mansur Ibrahim Mukhtar, The Impact of British Colonial Domination on Kano: C.1903 to 1950 A.D: A Study of Colonial Change, (Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University, Press, 2013), p. 6.

[10]Ibid., P..3.

[11] Interview with Alhaji Ahmadu Ibrahim Dal, 67 Years, in Dal Town on 5^th January, 2014.

[12] Interview with Alhaji Abdullah Muhammad Garun Ali 76 Years old, at his Residence in Garun Ali Town, on 11^th January, 2014 and NAK/KanProf/63/442/12/Makama District Assessment Report, p..3.

[13]NAK/KanProf/63/442/12/Makama District Assessment Report, p.4.

[14] Muhammadu Uba Adamu, Confluences and Influences: The Emergence of Kano as a City State,(Kano: Munawwara Books Foundation, 1999), p.92.

[15]Badayi, M. Sani, “An Appraisal of Existing Credit Facilities to the Fishery Sub-Sector: A Case Study of Wudil and Bagwai Fishing Zones in Kano State”, Kano Studies, A Journal of Savannah and Sudanic Research, 1, no. 2, (2003), p. 161.

[16]Suleman Dandija Ma’aji,” History of Wudil Town to 1970”, B.A Dissertation, Kano: Bayero University, (1993), p.10.

[17]Philip James Shea, “Approaching the Study of Production in Rural Kano”, in Studies in the History of Kano, ed. Bawuro Mubi Barkindo(Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books, 1983), p.102.

[18]Tukur M. Mukhtar, “Blacksmithing Industry in Sokoto Region in the Nineteenth Century”,Lapai Journal of Central Nigeria History, Department of History and Archaeology, Lapai, Niger State: Ibrahim Badamsi Babanbgida University, 3 no.1and 2, (2009), p.112.

[19]Mansur Ibrahim. Mukhtar, The Impact of British Colonial Domination on Kano: C.1903 to 1950 A.D: A Study of Colonial Change……p.20.

[20] Interview with Alhaji Zakariya’u Sa’adu Wudil, 81 Years, in Wudil Town, on 21^st April, 2013.

[21] Interview with Malam Idrisu Rufai Durbunde, 70 Years, in Durbunde town on 12^th November, 2013.

[22] Philip James Shea, “The Establishment of the Colonial Economy in Kano” in Perspectives on Kano-British Relations ed. M.O. Hambolu,,(Kano: Gidan Makama Museum, 2003), p.107.

[23]Interview with Malam Inuwa Mai Tafsiri, 70 Years, in Kachako Town on12th November, 2013.

[24] Interview with Malam Adamu Idrisu Utai, 90 Years, in Utai Town on 12^th November, 2013.

[25] Interview with Alhaji Zakariya’u Sa’adu, Wudil, 81 Years, in Wudil Town on 9^th April, 2013.

[26]Polly Hill, Population, Prosperity and Poverty: Rural Kano, 1900-1970,(London: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p.12.

[27] Interview with Malam Inuwa Mai Tafsiri, 70 Years, in Kachako Town on12th November, 2013.

[28]Philip James Shea, “The Development of an Export Oriented Dyed Cloth Industry in Kano Emirate in the Nineteenth Century” PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, (1975), p.80.

[29] Interview with Alhaji Salihu Ibrahim Kachako, 80 Years, in Kachako Town on 12^th November, 2013.

[30]Interview with Alh. Salihu Ibrahim Kachako, 80 Years, in Kachako Town on 12^th November, 2013.

[31] Mahdi Adamu, The Hausa Factor in West African History,(Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1978), .5.

[32]Sule Bello, State and Economy in Kano c.1894 to 1960: A Study of Colonial Domination…28 and Douglas Edwin Ferguson, “Imam Imoru: Nineteenth Century Hausaland; Being a Description of the Land and Society of His People”, PhD Thesis, University of California, (1973), p.308.

[33]Mahdi Adamu, The Hausa Factor in West African History…, p.6.

[34]Abdullahi Mahadi, “The State and the Economy in Kano: The Sarauta System and its Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano” …, p.615.

[35] Interview with Alhaji Zakariya’u Wudil, 81 Years, in Wudil Town, on 9^th April, 2013.

[36]Philip James. Shea, “Approaching the Study of Production in Rural Kano”…, p.110.

[37]Isyaku Ahmed, “Potting in Kano City and Wudil Town”, B.A Project, Kano: Department of History, Bayero University, (1981), Pp.11-12.

[38]Philip James Shea, “Approaching the Study of Production in Rural Kano” …, p. 112.

[39] NAK/KanProf/63/442/12/Makama District Assessment Report, p.5.

[40] Interview with Alhaji Zakariya’u Sa’adu Wudil, 81 Years, in Wudil Town on 9^th April, 2013.

[41] Paul E. Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola: The Hausa Kola Trade, 1700-1900, (Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1980), p. 88.

[42]Ibid., p.87.

[43] Philips James Edward, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate: Selected Studies, 1804-1903,” PhD Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, (1992), p.145.

[44] Ibid.

[45]Adamu Mohammed Fika, The Kano Civil War and British Over-Rule, 1882-1940…, p.46

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