An Ecocritical Reading of Selected Poems of Nnimmo Bassey’s We Thought it was Oil but it was Blood

Cite this article as: Keghtor, A.S. (2023). An Ecocritical Reading of Selected Poems of Nnimmo Bassey’s We Thought it was Oil but it was Blood. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, (2)2, 45-53. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2023.v02i02.006.

Akosu, Solomon Keghtor
Department of English and Literary Studies,
Faculty of Arts, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria.
akosusolomon5@gmail.com
(07066099106)

 Abstract

This paper presents an ecocritical analysis of Nnimmo Bassey's poetry collection, "We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood" (2002). Focusing on contemporary issues in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, the collection delves into themes of environmental degradation, despoliation, and the abuse of nature, including the landscape, flora, and fauna. Employing ecocriticism as a theoretical framework, this study conducts a contextual analysis of the poetry collection. Additionally, the paper evaluates the literary elements employed in the text, highlighting their significance for literary research. The findings suggest that the ecocritical reading of the text raises pertinent questions about human interactions with nature and enhances readers' awareness of the natural world and its interconnectedness with it.

Keywords: Ecocriticism, human versus nature, contextual analysis, Post-colonial Nigeria

Introduction

This paper presents an ecocritical reading of Nnimmo Bassey's poetry collection, "We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood" (2002). The collection addresses the prevalent issue of environmental degradation, despoliation, and the abuse of nature in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. By examining the landscape, flora, and fauna, the poems delve into the contemporary concerns surrounding the destructive impact of human activities. This analysis not only focuses on the ecological themes but also explores the literary elements present in the poems, evaluating their literary merit and significance. By employing an ecocritical lens, this study aims to shed light on the profound connection between literature, environmental issues, and the human experience.

The concepts of nature and environment, although related, have distinct meanings within the context of ecocriticism. Nature, in an ecocritical framework, refers to the earth-centred perspective in literary analysis, examining the role of nature within a given work. It encompasses the natural world as it existed before being significantly impacted by human technology and industrialization. This includes the land, its flora and fauna, waterways, living creatures, and the interconnected ecosystems that sustain them.

On the other hand, environment refers to the broader surrounding landscape, encompassing both natural and human-made elements. It encompasses the interactions between the natural and built environment, including human structures, technology, and their impact on the ecological balance. Environmentalists often advocate for conservation and limitations to protect the environment, while deep ecologists advocate for a complete return to a more harmonious and sustainable relationship with nature.

While a physical return to a pre-industrialized world may not be feasible for most people, literature offers a means for readers to experience and engage with the natural world as it once existed. Through literature, the pre-industrialized world can be recreated, allowing readers to connect with nature and explore its significance in the human experience.

The latter part of the twentieth century witnessed a proliferation of innovative approaches to the study and interpretation of literary works within the realm of literary theory. One particularly noteworthy critical perspective that emerged during this period is known by various names, including literary ecology, ecopoetics, environmental literary criticism, and green cultural studies (the latter being a tongue-in-cheek reference to distinguish it from poststructuralist theories). However, the most commonly used term for this approach is Ecocriticism, which was first coined by William Rueckert in his 1978 essay "Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism." Rueckert used the term to describe "the application of ecology and ecological concepts to the study of literature" (Dobie, 2012:238).

Ecocriticism, as a critical perspective, focuses on the exploration of ecological themes, environmental relationships, and the representation of nature and the environment in literary works. It recognizes the intricate connections between literature, culture, and the natural world, seeking to highlight the interdependencies and interactions between human beings and the ecosystems they inhabit. Ecocritics examine how literary texts engage with environmental concerns, shape ecological consciousness, and contribute to our understanding of the relationship between humans and the natural world.

The development of Ecocriticism has enriched literary studies by fostering interdisciplinary conversations between literature, ecology, environmental studies, and related fields. It offers a fresh lens through which to analyze and appreciate literary works, emphasizing the importance of environmental sustainability, ecological awareness, and our ethical responsibilities towards the natural world.

Poetry is a means of expressing views about man and his society. Modern Nigerian Poetry is heavily concerned with the survival of man and the planet. Poetry, therefore, in Nigeria captures the concerns of the relationship between man and his immediate environment.

Poetry, like all other literary genres, has the man with his life as its raw material, that natural material to which it gives an artistic shape and life employing its imaginative breath. As W. H. Hudson remarked, one of the impulses that have always generated literature is 'our interest in people and their doings', that is to say, our interest in people in human society, their actions and interactions with one another, the entire web of interrelations which bind them together into a human community (Egudu, 1978: 5).

The poet's creative process involves taking this raw material and transforming it through their imaginative resources, linguistic abilities, and visionary powers. Art, in essence, presents life through the lens of the artist's temperament. In the context of modern Nigerian poetry, this tradition holds, as it is deeply intertwined with the Nigerian people and society. The poetry engages with various aspects of life in Nigeria, encompassing its cultural, social, economic, intellectual, and political dimensions. The poets aim to offer a fresh perspective and evaluation of Nigerian life, presenting it to readers through their artistic genius and craftsmanship. Their works seek to awaken awareness and provoke a pleasant shock that leads to a renewed recognition of the complexities, activities, and challenges inherent in Nigerian society. Through an examination of modern Nigerian poetry, this study endeavours to explore how it accomplishes this task concerning colonial and post-colonial Nigeria.

Ecocriticism as a Theoretical Framework

The paper employs Ecocriticism as a theoretical framework to explore Nnimmo Bassey's poetry collection, "We Thought it was Oil But it was Blood." Ecocriticism is an interdisciplinary theory that examines environmental concerns by examining the intersection of literature and ecology. Its focus lies in the dignification and representation of nature in literary texts. According to Dobie (2012), Ecocriticism traces its roots back to the environmental movement of the late 1960s and 70s. Similarly, Barry (2002) suggests that Ecocriticism, or Green Studies, emerged in the late 1980s in the USA and the early 1990s in the UK. While American scholars prefer the term "Ecocriticism," British scholars tend to use "Green Studies." The history of Ecocriticism appears to be difficult to define, as it emerged in a fragmented form, distinct from formalism or structuralism.

Ecocriticism began with the pioneering works of British critic Raymond Williams who wrote a seminal critique of pastoral literature titled: The Country and the City (1973) and American Joseph Meeker who wrote The Comedy of Survival: Literary Ecology and Play Ethics (1974). Ecocriticism as a movement owes much to Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, an environmental expose (Agufure, 2016:22). Several scholars dwell on the two definitions of Cheryll Glotfelty and Lawrence Buell. Glotfelty’s concise statement refers to ecocriticism as “the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment.” Buell asserts that “ecocriticism is the study of literature and environment from an interdisciplinary point of view where all sciences come together to analyse the environment and brainstorm possible solutions for the correction of the contemporary environmental situation.” (Dobie, 2012:239). Despite their various points of view, critics seem to agree on one common position ecocriticism is not simply a celebration of some forms of inspirational writings.

The term "Ecocriticism" was first coined by William Rueckert in his essay titled "Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism" in 1978. Rueckert's essay focused on the representation of ecology and the application of ecological concepts to the study of literature (Glotfelty and Fromm 107). However, it was Cheryll Glotfelty who played a significant role in popularizing the theory. Glotfelty's appointment as a professor of Literature and Environment at the University of Nevada, Reno contributed to the dissemination and development of Ecocriticism as a field of study.

Since then, numerous scholars have contributed to the advancement and expansion of Ecocriticism. Prominent proponents of Ecocriticism include Harold Fromm, Lawrence Buell, Simon Estok, William Howarth, Joseph Meeker, Christopher Manes, Neil Evernden, David Mazel, Scott Slovic, Ursula Heise, Karen Thornber, Thomas Lyon, Sueellen Campbell, Michael Branch, Lawrence Coupe, Glen Love, among many others (Sunday, 2018:9). These scholars have made significant contributions to the theoretical framework, critical discussions, and application of Ecocriticism in various literary and environmental contexts.

Ecocriticism as a movement includes some designations “Green Cultural Studies”, “Eco-Poetry”, “Environmental Literary Criticism”, “Green Poetry”, “Eco- Literature” and “Eco/Environmental Studies”. Oppermann (1999) asserts that:

Ecocriticism launches a call to literature to connect to the issues of today’s environmental crisis. He further posits that the true concern of Ecocriticism ought not to be with absolute representational models, but with how nature gets textualized in literary texts to create an eco-literary discourse that would help produce an intertextual as well as an interactive approach between literary language and the language of nature. This shows that ecocritics should shift their focus from the mere representation of nature to also investigating all varying issues plaguing its existence to chart possible ways out of the crisis. As such, ecocriticism should be a step towards instituting eco-consciousness in humans, (p. 30).

From the above assertion, it can be concluded that Ecocriticism focuses on examining the relationship between literature and the environment, specifically how human beings' interactions with the natural world are reflected in literary works. Ecocriticism delves into the historical development of ecological thought, ethical considerations, and environmental activism within the realm of literature. It investigates the connections between literature and the biological environment, as well as literature and the physical environment. Hutchings (1972) logically argues that:

 

By studying the representation of the physical world in literary texts and the social contexts of their production, ecocritics attempt to account for attitudes and practices that have contributed to modern-day ecological problems while at the same time investigating alternative modes of thought and behaviour, including suitable practices that would respect the perceived rights or values associated with non-human creations and processes, (p. 1).

All these perspectives within the field of Ecocriticism share a common objective: to explore the relationship between literature and nature to revive readers' awareness of the nonhuman world and their responsibility to sustain it. Grounded in the fundamental understanding that all things are interconnected, Ecocriticism actively addresses the impact of human actions on the environment. According to Glotfelty, consciousness-raising is a central task of Ecocriticism.

Ecocritical scholars strongly emphasize the significance of nature in the study of literature. They argue that nature is an essential component of the world that literary critics investigate. For instance, in her Ecocritical Reader, Cheryll Glotfelty defines Ecocriticism as "the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment" (xvii). This definition encompasses an examination that renews readers' awareness of the nonhuman world and their duty to limit destructive impacts upon it. Approaching literature through this ecological lens entails asking questions about how nature is depicted in a given text and the role it plays within it (Dobie, 2012:250).

Ecocriticism's overarching aim is to illuminate the intricate connection between literature and the physical environment. Its proponents assert that nature is an integral part of the study of literature, and they advocate for a heightened consciousness of the nonhuman world and a commitment to minimizing our destructive influence on it. Interpreting literature from an ecocritical perspective involves scrutinizing how nature is portrayed and understanding its significance in the text.

Several scholars have built on Glotfelty’s fundamental definition by adding an extra-literary purpose. Buell, for example, points out that any study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment should be “conducted in a spirit of commitment to environmentalist praxis.” Simon C. Estok extends Buell’s comment by saying that ecocriticism “takes a stand by its commitment to the natural world as an important thing rather than simply as an object of thematic study and by its commitment to making connections.” Camilo Gomides, too, recognizes its social purpose when he speaks of “motivating audiences to live within a limit that will be binding over generations.” Estok broadens ecocriticism to include the study of “any theory that is committed to effecting change by analysing the function— thematic, artistic, social, historical, ideological, theoretical, or otherwise—of the natural environment, or aspects of it, represented in documents (literary or other) that contribute to material practices in material worlds (Dobie, 2012:239).

It is helpful to note how ecocriticism differs from other critical approaches. For example, its social purpose contrasts with the Formalists, who tried to separate a text from the world. Instead, ecocritics want to use texts to get at the world itself. They also differ from postmodernists by rejecting that everything should be socially and/or linguistically constructed. To them, nature exists as a force that affects human beings and human beings can also affect nature. (Some scholars have suggested that public frustration has fuelled the interest in ecocriticism with complex postmodern theories irrelevant to life as people experience it.) Ecocriticism stands apart from literary theory in general because instead of focusing on writers, text, and the world, as most critical approaches do, ecocriticism attempts to examine writers, texts, and the entire ecosphere.

Ecocritical Reading of Nnimmo Bassey’s We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood

Nnimmo Bassey's poetry collection, "We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood," serves as a powerful critique of the ecological system in his immediate environment. This collection sheds light on the degradation, despoliation, and abuse of nature, specifically the landscape, flora, and fauna of the Niger Delta Region in Nigeria. Bassey, through his poetry, highlights the vital role of literature in conveying the alarming state of nature endangered by negligence, exploitation, and greed.

From an ecocritical standpoint, the work of Cheryll Glotfelty provides a framework for analyzing Bassey's poetry. Glotfelty's set of questions, which address various aspects of ecology and institutional attitudes towards nature, serves as a model for this analysis. These questions, as presented in Dobie (2012), are outlined below:

Does the setting function as background or does it play an active role in the narrative? If it plays an active role, how important is it in working on the narrative? How is nature affected by human beings? How responsible are human beings for the environment? What questions does the text raise about human interactions with nature? Does the text raise the reader’s awareness of the natural world and his or her connection to it? (p. 243).

The aforementioned questions provide a valuable guide for exploring the ecological and ecocritical themes present in Nnimmo Bassey's poetry collection, "We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood." It is evident that Bassey's collection of poems effectively conveys several issues with ecocritical undertones. Through the utilization of a free verse format, Bassey grants himself the freedom to express his thoughts without constraints. This poetic technique, coupled with the deliberate use of enjambment, allows for a seamless flow of ideas from one line to the next. By employing these stylistic devices, Bassey amplifies the urgency and interconnectedness of the ecological concerns he addresses within the collection.

In Aghoghovwia’s (2013) words, therefore, We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood has the poet Nnimmo Bassey:

Walks through a thin line between poetic commitment and socio-environmental activism in bringing into the public sphere issues of sociocultural and environmental justice. The poetry collection carries the tone of subversion and defiance and the mood of anger provoked by a deep sense of denial, a collective deprivation of the people from access to the commonwealth that the oil brings. And the environment too, which suffers pollution as a result of the mindless drilling of pipes into what he calls “mother earth”. Bassey creates a text that is at best poetic activism and at worst an environmental rights manifesto. His call for environmental justice at this conjuncture of ongoing conversations on climate change indicts the oil extractive industry. He poetically draws attention to corporate lawlessness and environmental crimes inflicted on local landscapes that bear fossil fuel for the oil extraction industry, (p. 1).

Aghoghovwia’s position is that; to understand Bassy’s poetry collection is to critically appraise his immediate environment side by side with his poems. His poems are a reflection of his attachment to nature and the environment and his displeasure with the various types of machinery that result in their violation. Hence the tone of his poems is defiant and subversive and equally accompanied by the mood of anger and provocation.

 In the poem "We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood," Nnimmo Bassey skillfully employs rural scenes, landscapes, streets, and the natural environment as integral elements of the poem's setting. These elements serve as a backdrop through which the physical and psychological trauma experienced by both the inhabitants and the immediate environment is vividly portrayed. The poem unfolds with the following rendition:

An Ecocritical Study of Nnimmo Bassey’s We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood has provided a contextual interpretation that has significantly shaped the understanding of this literary text. The poetry collection is rich with ecological and environmental themes that define its essence. It delves into the urgent issue of environmental degradation, despoliation, and the abuse suffered by the natural landscape, flora, and fauna in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The title collection explores contemporary challenges that plague the poet's immediate social and physical environment.

Approaching the poetry collection from an ecocritical perspective allows us to recognize how the setting serves as both a backdrop and an active participant in the poetic rendition. The poems themselves play an instrumental role in engaging with and reshaping the immediate community. Furthermore, employing the ecocritical approach highlights the profound impact of human actions on nature and underscores the responsibility that humans bear for the well-being of their environment.

The text raises numerous thought-provoking questions regarding human interactions with the natural world and calls upon readers to cultivate a heightened awareness of the environment and its interconnectedness with it. Through this ecocritical lens, We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood invites readers to reflect on their relationship with nature, the consequences of their actions, and the urgent need for environmental stewardship.

The other day

We danced in the street

Joy in our hearts…

 

We thought it was oil

But it was blood

 

We thought it was oil

But it was blood

 

We see open mouths

But hear no screams

Tears don’t flow

When you are scared

We stand in pools

Up to our knees…

 

Dried tear bags

Polluted streams… (p 13- 14)

The excerpt highlights the poet's deep discontent with the violation of both the human inhabitants and the natural environment. The poet's tone reflects a sense of unease and discomfort resulting from the abuse and desecration of the land. Before the intrusion, the poet perceives the land as a peaceful and harmonious place, where humans and the natural environment coexist in tranquillity. However, the intrusion disrupts this harmony, and the consequences are evident in the polluted streams and the imagery of standing in pools of blood. This portrayal emphasizes the direct impact of human activities on the immediate natural environment. From an ecocritical perspective, the poetic setting not only serves as a backdrop but also actively contributes to the overall portrayal and understanding of the poem's themes and ecological concerns.

Furthermore, to illustrate in very graphic terms, the poet employs some literary tropes like metaphors and personifications. These are portrayed in his rendition thus: “dried tear bags”, “scrambled sky”, “drilling our souls”, “toasted dreams”, and “and heart jumping into our mouths”. These are all embedded through metaphoric representation and personification. Side by side with the thematic thrust is a graphical portrayal of the devastating implications of environmental degradation and annihilation of the Nigerian landscape and the people’s livelihood. The poem, though expressing harsh and grey realities of the Nigerian landscape and the natural environment, is not lacking in literary aesthetics and content.

In the poem titled "When the Earth Bleeds," the poet crafts a poetic rendition that satirically mocks any activity that leads to the bleeding of the earth, symbolizing the destructive consequences of petro-modernity. The poem serves as a critique of the promises of modernity, which claim to alleviate the hardships of human existence in the Niger Delta region. The poet asserts that petro-capitalism, with its emphasis on oil exploration and development, has had a detrimental effect on nature. The logic of progress associated with this system inflicts violence and death upon the earth. The following excerpt encapsulates this perspective:

I hear that oil

Makes things move

In reality check

Oil makes life stop

Because

The oil only flows

When the earth bleeds

A thousand explosions in the belly of the earth
Bleeding rigs, bursting pipes
This oil flows
From the earth’s sickbed
Because

The oil only flows
When the earth bleeds

They work in the dark
We must lift the light
Quench their gas flares
Expose their greed
Because

The oil only flows
When the earth bleeds

In conference halls
We talk in gardens of stones
The ocean waves bathe our eyes
But in Ogoniland, we can’t even breathe
Because

The oil only flows
When the earth bleeds

What shall we do?
What must we do?
Do we just sit?
Wail and mope?
Arise, people, Arise
Let’s unite
With our fists (p 16- 18)

The poem above serves as a comprehensive critique of any actions that result in harm to the natural environment. It addresses key issues central to ecology and ecocriticism as an approach. The setting functions as a backdrop and actively contributes to the overall message of the poem. It demonstrates the significant role of the poem in shaping and reshaping the immediate community. The poet emphasizes how human beings affect nature and highlights their responsibility towards the environment. Through its text, the poem prompts readers to contemplate their interactions with nature and fosters a deeper awareness of the natural world and its connection to it. The poem "When the Earth Bleeds" employs personification and imagery to great effect, as exemplified by the lines: "Oil makes life stop... when the earth bleeds..." These lines vividly convey the destructive power of nature and its ability to bring about hostility and death. Nature's voice resounds, urging humanity to comprehend and heed its warnings. Implicitly, the poem also sheds light on the unlawful practices and violations inflicted upon the natural environment by human activities.

Similarly, in the poem titled; “Oceanic March”, the poet vividly laments the deadly effects of the environmental despoliation that constantly causes death to the natural environment and even human beings. The poetic tone spells doom and hopelessness for humanity and the natural environment. The tone questions the forces militating against nature and its inhabitants. The poet takes a stern ecocritical approach to the issues akin to his immediate environment. Below is an excerpt depicting form the poem titled “Oceanic March”:

This rising tide

Shoots for boiling point

Whose point is it to set it

On fire?

This pile of dirt

Heaps of death from

The exhaust pipes of death

Can’t I refuse

The poison

And douse the flares from the nozzles of evil

This cocktail of air I’m forced to breathe

Whose duty is it to mix

And to fix

This death sentence

In our homes? (p 20)

The persona in the poem employs rhetorical questions as a powerful literary device to highlight the devastating consequences of dehumanizing activities inflicted upon the natural environment. These rhetorical questions serve to emphasize the silent yet significant issues plaguing the Niger Delta region. By posing these questions, the poet draws attention to the destructive impact on the environment and challenges the reader to reflect on the consequences of such actions. The use of rhetorical questions adds a sense of urgency and provocation, compelling the audience to confront the harsh realities and consider their responsibility in addressing the environmental challenges. The following lines are good examples of rhetorical questions: “…Whose point is it to set it on fire?”, “Whose duty is it to mix and to fix this death sentence in our homes?” Through the rhetorical questions, the disillusionment is registered, thus questioning and contending with the constituted authorities that are at the helm of affairs of violating the natural environment of the Niger Delta. Agofure (2016: 99) posits that the poetic lines:

Describe man’s obvious conflict natural world alongside the contamination that has become the norm in social progress. The poem “Oceanic March” expresses the detail that any social system that does not benefit the Nigerian natural environment and people is unsustainable. Thus, sustainability requires the dismantling of the economic and capitalist system demanding the earth. Therefore the poet utilises his poetry not just to describe the degradation of Nigerian natural scenes but also, to be conscientious of the global implication of the current ecological crisis.

From the proposition above, it is evident that the poet expresses a strong condemnation of various activities that harm the natural environment and the landscape. The poem titled "We Have One Earth" serves as a platform for the poet to lament the degradation, despoliation, and abuse of nature, including the impact on the flora, fauna, birds, and wildlife. The poet emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living beings and highlights the suffering and vulnerability experienced by these creatures due to human actions. Through this lament, the poet raises awareness about the consequences of environmental destruction and calls for a more responsible and sustainable approach to coexist with nature.

If the chattering birds

Must not run out of breath

Men must give nature a break

And for a moment cease their jabber

To allow the weaver birds chatter songs of life

Long postponed (p 26)

In the given context, the poet strongly advocates for separation or detachment from destructive human activities to restore harmony and happiness to nature, including the birds and other creatures. The poet recognizes that the current inhumane activities have negative consequences for both the flora and fauna of the natural environment. By using onomatopoeia, a literary device that imitates natural sounds through words, the poet creates a vivid and sensory experience for the reader. This serves to enhance the reader's engagement with the poem and emphasizes the importance of reconnecting with nature and its inherent beauty.

In the poem titled “Without the Sun…” the poet reveals the interdependence of man on his natural environment, the flora on the fauna and vice versa.

Without

The sun

The Moon

Has no light

Without

The woman

No man

Is strong

Without

The sea

The fish

Which fish?

Without

The land

Our lives

Where is the life?

Without

The sun

The moon

Has no light

Without

The man

No woman

Is beautiful (p 61)

The poet sees man as dependent on his immediate environment, likewise the natural environment. The moon needs the sun, the fish needs the sea, and man needs the land; life itself cannot exist without the sun. The poetic style is unique, with simple language and clarity of ideas. There is also the use of enjambment; ideas flow into succeeding lines with the indentation style also stylistically employed. Similarly, rhetorical questions also play their way into the rendition of the poem; “Without the sea the fish Which fish?”, “Without the land our lives.. where is the life?” Through these various unique features, the interdependence of man on the natural environment, likewise the natural environment on man, is depicted. Both man and the natural environment need each other for survival.

Conclusion

An Ecocritical Study of Nnimmo Bassey’s We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood has provided a contextual interpretation that has significantly shaped the understanding of this literary text. The poetry collection is rich with ecological and environmental themes that define its essence. It delves into the urgent issue of environmental degradation, despoliation, and the abuse suffered by the natural landscape, flora, and fauna in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The title collection explores contemporary challenges that plague the poet's immediate social and physical environment.

Approaching the poetry collection from an ecocritical perspective allows us to recognize how the setting serves as both a backdrop and an active participant in the poetic rendition. The poems themselves play an instrumental role in engaging with and reshaping the immediate community. Furthermore, employing the ecocritical approach highlights the profound impact of human actions on nature and underscores the responsibility that humans bear for the well-being of their environment.

The text raises numerous thought-provoking questions regarding human interactions with the natural world and calls upon readers to cultivate a heightened awareness of the environment and its interconnectedness with it. Through this ecocritical lens, We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood invites readers to reflect on their relationship with nature, the consequences of their actions, and the urgent need for environmental stewardship.

References

1.       Aghoghovwia, P. https://naturecritical.wordpress.com/2013/02/27/writing-showcase-philip-aghoghovwia-on-nnimmo-basseys-we-thought-it-was-oil-but-it-was-blood. Retrieve on August 15, 2018.

2.       Agofure, J. O. (2016). Modern Nigerian Poetry and the Environment: An Ecocritical Study of Selected Poems of Tanure Ojaide, Niyi Osundare and Nnimmo Bassey. A Ph. D Thesis submitted to the Department of English and Literary Studies, Faculty of Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

3.       Bassey, A. (2002). We Thought It Was Oil but It Was Blood. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited

4.       Dobie, A. B. (2012) 3^rd ed. Theory into Practice: An Introduction to Literary Criticism. Boston:          Wordsworth Cengage Learning.

5.       Egudu R. N. (1978) Modern African Poetry and the African Predicament. London: The       Macmillan Press Limited.

6.       Glotfelty, C. and Harold, F. (1996), (ed). The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary   Ecology. Athens: University of Georgia.

7.       Hutchings, K. (1972) “Ecocriticism in British Romantic Studies” http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com 2007. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 3&4. New York Macmillan Company & The Free Press.

8.       Nature Critical Essays Reading Group. Poetry and Activism as (New) Modes of Eco/Environmental Inflections in Nnimmo Bassey’s We thought it was oil but it was blood – Philip Aghoghovwia. February 27, 2013. Retrieved August 18, 2018.

9.       Oppermann, S. (1999) Ecocriticism: Natural World in the Literary Viewfinder. Journal of   Faculty of Letters (16.2). Hacettepe University.

10.    Ruecket, W. (1996) Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism. The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Gloltfelty Cheryll and Harold Fromm. Athens University of Georgia 1996.

11.    Sunday, Y. D. (2018). Modern Nigerian Fiction and the Rhetoric of Eco-Culture: An Ecocritical Reading of Adamu Kyuka Usman;s The Death of Eternity, Tanure Ojaide’s                The Activist and Kiane Agary’s Yellow yellow. An unpublished Seminar Paper presented to the Department of English and Literary Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

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