Ticker

6/recent/ticker-posts

Morphophono-Logics of Interrogatives in Fulfulde Noun Classes

Cite this article as: Aminu, A. (2023). Morphophono-Logics of Interrogatives in Fulfulde Noun Classes. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, (2)1, 1-8. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2023.v02i01.001.

BY

Abdulmalik Aminu (PhD)

Department of African Languages and Cultures, 
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

08138402892
abdulmalik.aminu@gmail.com
aaminu@abu.edu.ng

Abstract

Fulfulde language is classified under African languages, as a family member of Niger-Congo, under West Atlantic group. It has some family members such as Wolof, Serer, and Joola. (Greenberg 1963). It has six dialects across West Africa, which are: Fuuta Tooro, Fuuta Jaaloo, Masina, Sokoto and Western Niger, Central Northern Nigeria and Eastern Northern Nigeria, and Adamawa (Arnott 1972 p. 8). In Fulfulde language, nominal stems must be accompanied by a nominal class suffix (McIntosh 1984 p. 43) and agreement in noun affects both words and sentences in the language (Ahmed 2011 p. 27). The noun classes peculiar to Adamawa dialect of Fulfulde attach an interrogative –yee suffix to form an interrogative word. In order to answer the questions formed by attaching the –yee suffix, a modification of -yee to -yaa occurs in the process. The formations and the answers of the interrogatives follow some logical ordering from simplex to complex, which are discussed in this paper, and supported with examples. This paper is a descriptive linguistics research with a native intuition of the researcher, whom is a native to the Adamawa dialect, as a primary source of data. In conclusion, the paper found out that in Fulfulde dialect of Adamawa, all the noun classes form an interrogative word by adding -yee affix, and form an answer through ablaut of -yee to –yaa morphemes. Phonological processes such as assimilation, deletion and metathesis occur in the formation of the interrogatives. 

Introduction

On the basis of syntactic properties, of any grammar, for instance the grammar of English, sentences can be classifiebasedse on their functions into declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory (Aarts 2001 p. 58) or simply declarative and interrogative (Chomsky 2002 p. 90). The interrogative sentences are sentences that are normally used to ask questions. The questions asked may require an answer or may not as in the case of rhetorical questions. The questions that may require an answer can be either yes or no questions or wh questions. Wh parameter of variation determines whether wh expressions can be fronted or not. In simple wh question in English, the wh expression is moved to the beginning of a sentence while in Chinese, thewh-wordd remains in situ (Mairal and Gil 2006 p. 16). This paper discusses wh questions with regards to the morphemes and some grammatical elements that relate with noun classes in Fulfulde, in constructing the interrogative words in logical ordering. The paper is limited to ‘far demonstrative’ with a –ya suffix, in concordance with a –ye interrogative element.

The interrogative words

Functionally, interrogative words in Fulfulde language are any of the Fulfulde noun classes, some pronouns and a few adverbs that have –yee with high stress as a suffix (Arnott 1970). Arnott (1970 p. 135) stated that “In the case of far demonstratives and interrogatives, there is a second element in both the first and the second form, -a and –ya respectively in far demonstrative and –e and –ye respectively in interrogatives. Depending on the dialect of the language, there are between 25 and 28 noun classes. (Mukoshy 1991). There are 25 Fulfulde noun classes in the Adamawa dialect such asɓe, ɗe, nge, ki, ngel, nde, ɗi, ngo, ko, ngum, ndi, ɗum, ngol, kol, kal, ndu, nga, ngu, o, ko, ɗam, ngal, nga, ka, kon. Each of the class attaches a –yee suffix to form an interrogative word. For instance, the ɓclass attaches the –yee suffix to form ɓeyee interrogative word in a sentence such as ɓeyee on lamɗo leni? ‘Which people did the king send?’ ndeyee ɓe ngari? ‘When did they come?’

The noun classes

Noun class is any classification of nouns according to semantic aspects such as animate, inanimate, neuter etc. (Trauth and Kazzazi 1998 p. 815). A group, category, collection or set of nouns sharing characteristics or attributes is what is referred to as their class. The class marker expresses the concept of the noun it belongs. According to Arnott (1970 p. 12), “The basis of the nominal system of Fula is a class system similar in kind to class systems found in many West African languages as well as in Bantu languages”. A noun (with the exception of pa proper noun and some abstract nouns) in Fulfulde must belong to a class and has to mark quantity. A noun can either be ordinary/normal, large, small, or tiny and depending on the dialect, there are between 25 and 28 classes in the language. (Mukoshy 1991). Although, Arnott (1979 p. 75) brought a general coverage of the meanings found in the various classesinn only 25 classes. In Fulfulde, there are bound-based morphs which are allomorphs of the classes. Examples of the bound-based morphs are as follows: -o/jo/wo/ko/ɗo, -ɓe/’en, -el/gel/lel/ngel/yel, - um/ngum/yum, -on/kon/lon/bon, -a/ga/la/wa/, -o/ko/ho/lo, -nde/de/re, -ndi/di/ri, -ndu/du/ru, -a/mba/ba/wa, -a/nga/ga/wa/ba, -ngal/ga/wal, -e/ngel/ge/ye, -i/ngi/gi/wi, -o/ngo/go/wo, - o/ngol/gol/wol, -u/ngu/gu/wu, -a/ka/ha, -kal/hal, -ki/hi, -o/ko/ho, -ol/kol/bol, - am/ɗam/jam/ndam, -um/ɗum/jum, -e/je/ɗe/le/ye, -i/ji/ɗi/li/’yi (Mukoshy 1991 p. 26). The classes in Fulfulde are divided into human and non-human class, augmentative class, diminutive class, pejorative class and neuter class. The human class consists of o and its plural ɓe. The augmentative class is nga with its plural ko, the diminutive class is ngel with its plural kon, the pejorative class is ngum and the neuter class is ɗum. The rest are the non-human classes with ɗe and ɗas their plurals (Aminu 2015 p. 61). It is required in Fulfulde to change the suffix of a noun according to its noun class to form its plural, however, not more than one class can be attached to a noun root in Fulfulde (Aminu 2016 p. 8). Also, it is difficult to get an inseparable word in Fulfulde because of the noun class system (Ahmed, 2011).

In all the noun classes in Fulfulde, according to this paper, the –yee element can be affixed to any of them to form an interrogative word. Therefore, there are 14 logics presented on how to form interrogative words in the language and how to form their answers as ‘far demonstratives’ with –ya suffix as follows:

Logic 1:

#noun class# + -yee = interrogative word

When –yee suffix is added to a noun class, an interrogative word is formed. The examples are in the following table:

Table 1:

s/n

Noun class

Interrogative suffix

Interrogative word

1

O

-yee

mo[1]yee?

2

ɓe

-yee

ɓeyee?

3

ɗe

-yee

ɗeyee?

4

ɗi

-yee

ɗiyee?

5

Ki

-yee

kiyee,?

6

ngel

-yee

ngelyee?

7

nde

-yee

ndeyee?

8

nge

-yee

ngeyee?

9

Ka

-yee

kayee?

10

ngal

-yee

ngalyee?

11

ɗam

-yee

ɗamyee?

12

Kon

-yee

konyee?

13

Ko

-yee

koyee?

14

Ngu

-yee

nguyee?

15

Ndu

-yee

nduyee?

16

Nga

-yee

ngayee?

17

Kol

-yee

kolyee?

18

Kal

-yee

kalyee?

19

ɗum

-yee

ɗumyee?

20

ngol

-yee

ngolyee?

21

Ndi

-yee

ndiyee?

22

ngum

-yee

ngumyee?,

23

Ko

-yee

koyee?

24

Ngo

-yee

ngoyee?

 

Logic 2:

/y/ → Ø / [+son] - /ee/.

Except in the case of konyee where /n/ → [ɲ] / - /y/ as in [koɲe] (bi-directional assimilation), the /y/ sound becomes deleted when it occurs inbetween sonorants /l,m,n/ and long vowel sound /ee/.

Example 1:

         i.            ngelyee?  → ngelee?                                            

       ii.            ngumyee? → ngumee?

     iii.            ɗumyee? → ɗumee?

     iv.            ngolyee? → ngolee?

       v.            kolyee? → kolee?

     vi.            kalyee? → kalee?

   vii.            ɗamyee? → ɗamee?

 viii.            ngalyee? → ngalee?

     ix.            konyee? → koɲee? 

Logic 3:

#plural noun class# + -yee = plural interrogative word.

Out of the noun classes, there are five plural classes which are: ɓe, ɗe, ɗi, ko, and kon which form plural interrogative words. When the suffix –yee is added to the plural noun classes, plural interrogative words are formed.

Example 2:

         i.            ɓeyee? ‘who?, plural of o class’

       ii.            ɗeyee? ‘what/which? plural of non-human class’

     iii.            ɗiyee? ‘what/which?, plurl of non-human class’

     iv.            koyee? ‘what/which?, plual of nga class’

       v.            kone/koɲe? (*knee)‘what/which?, lural of ngel class’

WH questions

In other to mark interrogative words such as when, what, where, why, who and how, there are noun classes, ppronouns and other morphemes either free or bound that are involved.

Logic 4:                                                      

Xmorpheme ± -yee =5Ws and H

A morpheme, free or bound, can be attached with the –yee suffix to form what, when, where, why, who and how interrogative words.

Example 3:

         i.            ndeyee? ‘When’

       ii.            moyee? ‘Who’

     iii.            ɗumee? ‘What’

     iv.            [2]ko nii? ‘Why’

       v.            toyee? ‘Where’

     vi.            noyee? ‘How’

The no- and to- preceding yee are adverbs of manner and place respectively, mo is a third person pronoun of o class, ɗum is a neuter class and nde is a class of ‘time’, among others.

Logic 5:

kofree morpheme ± word(s) = interrogative word

The ko[3] is a free interrogative element which stands alone, and precedes a word or group of words to form an interrogative word.

Example 4:

         i.            ko a tammi? ‘what do you expect

       ii.            ko a laarata? ‘what are you looking at?’

     iii.            ko siifi ma? ‘what scratched you?’

     iv.            ko waɗɓe doggataa? ‘why are they running?’

       v.            ko wa’i nii? ‘why is this way?’

     vi.            ko nii? ‘why?’

   vii.            ko? ‘is that?’

The allomorphs of noun classes

Each class in the classes mentioned has an allomorph that optionally proceeds the interrogative marker to ascertain its referent.

Example 5:

ɓe → en, ɗe → je, nge → he, ki → hi, ngel → yel, nde → re, ɗi → ji, ngo → wo, ko → ho, ngum → um, ndi → ri, ɗum → jum, ngol → wol, kol → hol, kal → hal, ndu → ru, nga → wa, ngu → wu, o/mo → jo/ɗo, ko → ho, ɗam → jam, ngal → wal, ka → ha, kon → hon.

Logic 6:

 #noun class# + -yee (+allomorph) = interrogative referent.

An allomorph is optionally attached, together with the –yee suffix to a noun class to form an interrogative referent.

Table 2:

s/n

Noun class

Interrogative suffix

Allomorph

Interrogative referent

1

o/mo

-yee

jo/ɗo,

moyeejo/moyeeɗo?

2

ɓe

-yee

en

ɓeye’en?

3

ɗe

-yee

je

ɗeyeeje?

4

ɗi

-yee

ji

ɗiyeeji?

5

ki

-yee

hi

kiyehi?

6

ngel

-yee

yel

ngeleyel?

7

nde

-yee

re

ndeyeere?

8

nge

-yee

he

ngeyehe?

9

ka

-yee

ha

kayeeha?

10

ngal

-yee

wal

ngalewal?

11

ɗam

-yee

jam

ɗayeejam?

12

kon

-yee

hon

koɲehon?

13

ko

-yee

ho

koyeeho?

14

ngu

-yee

wu

nguyewu?

15

ndu

-yee

ru

nduyeeru?

16

nga

-yee

wa

ngayewa?

17

kol

-yee

hol

kolehol?

18

kal

-yee

hal

kalehal?

19

ɗum

-yee

jum

ɗumeejum?

20

ngol

-yee

wol

ngolewol?

21

ndi

-yee

ri

ndiyeeri?

22

ngum

-yee

 um

ngumeeyum?

23

ko

-yee

ho

koyeho?

24

ngo

-yee

wo

ngoyewo?

 

Logic 7:

#noun class# + -yaa = answer

In other to answer the questions triggered by the –yee suffix attached to noun classes, in a logical chiasmthe us, -yaa suffix with low stress can be attached to any of the noun classes and answer the questions which demonstrate a far object.

 

Table 3:

s/n

Noun class

Interrogative suffix

Interrogative word

Suffix

Answer

1

o

-yee

moyee?

-yaa

Oyaa

2

ɓe

-yee

ɓeyee?

-yaa

ɓeyaa

3

ɗe

-yee

ɗeyee?

-yaa

ɗeyaa

4

ɗi

-yee

ɗiyee?

-yaa

ɗiyaa

5

ki

-yee

kiyee,?

-yaa

Kiyaa

6

ngel

-yee

ngelyee?

-yaa

ngelyaa

7

nde

-yee

ndeyee?

-yaa

ndeyaa

8

nge

-yee

ngeyee?

-yaa

ngeyaa

9

ka

-yee

kayee?

-yaa

Kayaa

10

ngal

-yee

ngalyee?

-yaa

ngalyaa

11

ɗam

-yee

ɗamyee?

-yaa

ɗamyaa

12

kon

-yee

konyee?

-yaa

konyaa

13

ko

-yee

koyee?

-yaa

Koyaa

14

ngu

-yee

nguyee?

-yaa

nguyaa

15

ndu

-yee

nduyee?

-yaa

nduyaa

16

nga

-yee

ngayee?

-yaa

ngayaa

17

kol

-yee

kolyee?

-yaa

kolyaa

18

kal

-yee

kalyee?

-yaa

Kalyaa

19

ɗum

-yee

ɗumyee?

-yaa

ɗumyaa

20

ngol

-yee

ngolyee?

-yaa

ngolyaa

21

ndi

-yee

ndiyee?

-yaa

ndiyaa

22

ngum

-yee

ngumyee?

-yaa

ngumyaa

23

ko

-yee

koyee?

-yaa

Koyaa

24

ngo

-yee

ngoyee?

-yaa

ngoyaa

 

Logic 8:

/y/ → Ø / [+son] - /aa/.

Except in the case of konyaa where /n/ → [ɲ] / - /y/ as in [koɲaa], the /y/ sound becomes deleted when it occurs inbetween sonorants /l,m,n/ and long vowel sound /aa/.

Example 6:

         i.            ngelyaa  → ngelaa                                               

       ii.            ngumyaa → ngumaa

     iii.            ɗumyaa → ɗumaa

     iv.            ngolyaa → ngolaa

       v.            kolyaa → kolaa

     vi.            kalyaa → kalaa

   vii.            ɗamyaa → ɗamaa

 viii.            ngalyaa → ngalaa

     ix.            konyaa → koɲaa 

The five plural class interrogatives can have their answers as follows:

Example 7:

         i.            ɓeyee? → ɓeyaa ‘who?, plural of o class’

       ii.            ɗeyee? → ɗeyaa ‘what/which?, plural of non-human class’

     iii.            ɗiyee? → ɗiyaa ‘what/which?, plural of non-human class’

     iv.            koyee? → koyaa ‘what/which?, plural of nga class’

       v.            koɲee? → koɲaa ‘what/which? plural of ngel class’

In the interrogative answer, none of the allomorphs in the 24 classes mentioned proceeds to the suffix to ascertain its referent, as it occurs in the interrogative questions.

Logic 9:

Question    =   Answer

noun class + -yee (+ allomorph) = noun class + -yaa

In a general sense, a noun class in Fulfulde adds the –yee suffix to form an interrogative word, and adds an allomorph of the noun class after the suffix to form an interrogative word with a specific referent to its noun class. To answer the question asked, the a –yaa suffix is attached to a specific noun class in the environment of the interrogative –yee suffix.

Table 4:

s/n

Noun class

Interrogative word

Interrogative word with referent

Answer

1

o

moyeejo?

moyeejo/moyeeɗo?

oyaa

2

ɓe

ɓeyee?

ɓeye’en?

ɓeyaa

3

ɗe

ɗeyee?

ɗeyeeje?

ɗeyaa

4

ɗi

ɗiyee?

ɗiyeeji?

ɗiyaa

5

Ki

kiyee?

kiyehi?

kiyaa

6

Ngel

ngelee?

ngeleyel?

ngelaa

7

Nde

ndeyee?

ndeyeere?

ndeyaa

8

Nge

ngeyee?

ngeyehe?

ngeyaa

9

Ka

kayee?

kayeeha?

kayaa

10

ngal

ngalee?

ngalewal?

ngalaa

11

ɗam

ɗayee?

ɗayeejam?

ɗamaa

12

Kon

koɲee?

koɲehon?

koɲaa

13

Ko

koyee?

koyeeho?

koyaa

14

Ngu

nguyee?

nguyewu?

nguyaa

15

Ndu

nduyee?

nduyeeru?

nduyaa

16

Nga

ngayee?

ngayewa?

ngayaa

17

Kol

kolee?

kolehol?

kolaa

18

Kal

kalee?

kalehal?

kalaa

19

ɗum

ɗumee?

                   ɗumeejum?

ɗumaa

20

Ngol

ngolee?

ngolewol?

ngolaa

21

Ndi

ndiyee?

ndiyeeri?

ndiyaa

22

ngum

ngumee?

ngumeeyum?

ngumaa

23

Ko

koyee?

koyeho?

koyaa

24

ngo

ngoyee?

ngoyewo?

ngoyaa

 

In all the examples, the /y/ sound becomes deleted in-between sonorants /l, m, n/ and vowels /ee, aa/.

Logic 10:

/y/ → /Ø/ / [+son] - /ee, aa/

In the cases of the absence of sonorants at the end of the classes, there is an ablaut of vowels –ee ↔ –aa to form yee ↔ yaa, as in nduyee? ↔ nduyaaɓeyee? ↔ ɓeyaa, kiyee? ↔ kiyaa and so on. In the presence of sonorants, the /y/ sound is deleted and the vowels ablaut from –ee ↔ -aa, as in ngalee? ↔ ngalaaɗumee? ↔ ɗumaa, koɲee? ↔ koɲaa.

Logic 11:

Class A ≠ Class B / -ee↔-aa

None of the classes can switch to another, in class or allomorph, to answer a question. For instance, class A is not equal to class B when it occurs before the -ee or -aa vowels.

Example 8:

a)       i) ɓeyee = ɓeye’en = ɓeyaa

        ≠

ii) ɓeyee ≠ ɓeyeere ≠ ndeyaa

b)      i) kiyee = kiyehi = kiyaa

ii) kiyee ≠ ngoyehi ≠ nduyaa

c)       i) ngolee = ngolewol = ngolaa

ii) ngolee ≠ ngalewal ≠ nguyaa

Logic 12:

Plural class ≠ Singular class / -ee↔-aa

Plural classes ɓe, ɗe, ɗi, ko, and kon and their allomorphs cannot answer singular classes through the -ee and –aa ablaut.

Example 9:

Logic 13:

Xclass + -yel + -yee = interrogative word.

Except for the plural classes ɓe, ɗe, ɗi, ko, kon, neuter class ɗum, pejorative class ngum, and liquid class ɗam, all other classes can affix yel allomorph of diminutive ngel class to form an interrogative word. However, a metathesis occurs in the process from yelyee to yeeyel. That is to say:

y1e2l3y4e5e6 → y4e5e6y1e2l3

Example 10:

         i.            Kiyelyee → Kiyeeyel?

       ii.            Ndeyelyee → Ndeyeeyel?

     iii.            Ngeyelyee → Ngeyeeyel?

     iv.            Ngayelyee → Ngaleeyel?

       v.            Nguyelyee → Nguyeeyel?

     vi.            Nduyelyee → Nduyeeyel?

   vii.            Koyelyee → Koleeyel?

 viii.            Kayelyee → Kaleeyel?

     ix.            Ngoyelyee → Ngoleeyel?

       x.            Ndiyelyee → Ndiyeeyel?

     xi.            Ngoyelyee → Ngoyeeyel?

Logic 14:

Xclass + Ø interrogative + -(y)el = interrogative word

The interrogative –yee suffix disappears and leaves only the -yel suffix to serve the purpose. Thus, /y/ → Ø/[+son]-/ee/.

Example 11:

   xii.            Kiyeyel → kiyel?

 xiii.            Ndeyeyel → ndeyel?

 xiv.            Ngeyeyel → ngeyel?

   xv.            Ngaleyel → ngalel?

 xvi.            Nguyeyel → nguyel?

xvii.            Nduyeyel → nduyel?

xviii.            Koleyel → kolel?

  xix.            Kaleyel → kalel?

    xx.            Ngoleyel → ngolel?

  xxi.            Ndiyeyel → ndiyel?

xxii.            Ngoyeyel → ngoyel?

All answer words of the above have –yaa as the usual suffix, with no indication of the diminutive yel suffix.

Example 12:

         i.            Kiyel? → kiyaa

       ii.            Ndeyel? → ndeyaa

     iii.            Ngeyel? → ngeyaa

     iv.            Ngalel? → ngalaa

       v.            Nguyel? → nguyaa

     vi.            Nduyel? → nduyaa

   vii.            Kolel? → kolaa

 viii.            Kalel? → kalaa

     ix.            Ngolel? → ngolaa

       x.            Ndiyel? → ndiyaa

     xi.            Ngoyel? → ngoyaa

Conclusion

Structurally, interrogative words in Fulfulde language are any of the Fulfulde noun classes, some pronouns and a few adverbs that have –yee with high stress as a suffix. The noun class is any classification of nouns according to semantic aspects such as animate, inanimate, neuter etc. A group, category, collection or set of nouns sharing characteristics or attributes is what is referred to as their class. The class marker expresses the concept of the noun it belongs. The classes in Fulfulde are divided into human and non-human classes, augmentative class, diminutive class, pejorative class and neuter class. The formations and the answers of the interrogatives follow some logical ordering from simplex to complex. The paper found out that all the noun classes form an interrogative word by adding the -yee affix, and forming an answer through ablaut of -yee to –yaa morphemes. In other to mark interrogative words such as when, what, where, why, who and how, there are noun classes, pronouns, and other morphemes either free or bound that are involved such as in Logic 4:Xmorpheme ± -yee =5Ws and H. Phonological processes such as assimilation, deletion and metathesis occur in the formation of the interrogatives.

In a general sense, a noun class in Fulfulde adds the –yee suffix to form an interrogative word, and adds an allomorph of the noun class after the suffix to form an interrogative word with a specific referent to its noun class. To answer the question asked, a –yaa suffix is attached to a specific noun class in the environment of the interrogative –yee suffix.

 References

Ahmed, A, I (2011). Introduction to Fulfulde Syntax.LINCOM EUROPA, AcademicPublications.

Aminu, A. (2015). Comparative Study of Hausa and Fulfulde Inflections. M.A Thesis. Zaria. Department of African Languages and Cultures, Ahmadu Bello University.

Aminu, A. (2016). Comparative Study of Fulfulde and Swahili Noun Classes. Kano. 2nd International Conference on Fulfulde Studies. Centre for Research in Nigerian Languages and Folklore, Bayero University, Kano.

Arnott, D.W. (1970). Nominal and Verbal Systems of Fula. Clarendon press, Oxford, England.

Arnott, D.W. (1972). Some Aspects of the Study of Fula Dialect. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol 37 No.1. Cambridge University Press, England. pp. 8-18

Aarts, B. (2001). English Syntax and Augmentation. New York. PALGRAVE.

Chomsky, N. (2002). Syntactic Structures. Second edition. Berlin. Mouton de Gruyter

Girei, A.U. (1999). A Comparative Analysis of Morphosyntactic Variations Between Adamawa and Gombe Dialects of Fulfulde. M.A Thesis, Department of Languages and Linguistics, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Greenberg, J.H (1963). The Languages of Africa.Indiana University, Bloomington, Mouton,The Hague.

McIntosh, M. (1984). Fulfulde Syntax and Verbal Morphology. St Edmundsbury Press Ltd.

Mukoshy, I. (1991). Fulfulde Morphemes. In: Abba, I.A. Mukoshy, I. and Tahir, G. (Eds) Studies in Fulfulde Language, Literature and Culture, Proceedings of the 1st – 4th International Conferences on Fulfulde Language, Literature and Culture. Kano: Centre for the Study of Nigerian Languages, Bayero University.

 

Mairal, R and Gil, J. (2006). A First Look at Universals. In: Mairal, R and Gil, J (Eds), Linguistic Universals. New York. Cambridge University Press.

 

Trauth, G. and Kazzazi, K. (1998 eds.). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. New York. Routledge.



[1] class in subjective appears mo in objective (Arnott 1970).

[2] Ko nii is a short form of ko waɗi nii

[3] Not to be confused with the ko borrowed from Hausa language.

Post a Comment

0 Comments