Cite this article as: Aminu, A. (2023). Morphophono-Logics of Interrogatives in Fulfulde Noun Classes. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, (2)1, 1-8. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2023.v02i01.001.
BY
Abdulmalik Aminu (PhD)
Department of African Languages and Cultures,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Abstract
Fulfulde language is classified under African languages, as a family member of Niger-Congo, under West Atlantic group. It has some family members such as Wolof, Serer, and Joola. (Greenberg 1963). It has six dialects across West Africa, which are: Fuuta Tooro, Fuuta Jaaloo, Masina, Sokoto and Western Niger, Central Northern Nigeria and Eastern Northern Nigeria, and Adamawa (Arnott 1972 p. 8). In Fulfulde language, nominal stems must be accompanied by a nominal class suffix (McIntosh 1984 p. 43) and agreement in noun affects both words and sentences in the language (Ahmed 2011 p. 27). The noun classes peculiar to Adamawa dialect of Fulfulde attach an interrogative –yee suffix to form an interrogative word. In order to answer the questions formed by attaching the –yee suffix, a modification of -yee to -yaa occurs in the process. The formations and the answers of the interrogatives follow some logical ordering from simplex to complex, which are discussed in this paper, and supported with examples. This paper is a descriptive linguistics research with a native intuition of the researcher, whom is a native to the Adamawa dialect, as a primary source of data. In conclusion, the paper found out that in Fulfulde dialect of Adamawa, all the noun classes form an interrogative word by adding -yee affix, and form an answer through ablaut of -yee to –yaa morphemes. Phonological processes such as assimilation, deletion and metathesis occur in the formation of the interrogatives.
Introduction
On the basis of syntactic properties, of any grammar, for instance the grammar of English, sentences can be classifiebasedse on their functions into declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory (Aarts 2001 p. 58) or simply declarative and interrogative (Chomsky 2002 p. 90). The interrogative sentences are sentences that are normally used to ask questions. The questions asked may require an answer or may not as in the case of rhetorical questions. The questions that may require an answer can be either yes or no questions or wh questions. Wh parameter of variation determines whether wh expressions can be fronted or not. In simple wh question in English, the wh expression is moved to the beginning of a sentence while in Chinese, thewh-wordd remains in situ (Mairal and Gil 2006 p. 16). This paper discusses wh questions with regards to the morphemes and some grammatical elements that relate with noun classes in Fulfulde, in constructing the interrogative words in logical ordering. The paper is limited to ‘far demonstrative’ with a –ya suffix, in concordance with a –ye interrogative element.
The interrogative words
Functionally, interrogative words in Fulfulde language are any of the Fulfulde noun classes, some pronouns and a few adverbs that have –yee with high stress as a suffix (Arnott 1970). Arnott (1970 p. 135) stated that “In the case of far demonstratives and interrogatives, there is a second element in both the first and the second form, -a and –ya respectively in far demonstrative and –e and –ye respectively in interrogatives. Depending on the dialect of the language, there are between 25 and 28 noun classes. (Mukoshy 1991). There are 25 Fulfulde noun classes in the Adamawa dialect such as: É“e, É—e, nge, ki, ngel, nde, É—i, ngo, ko, ngum, ndi, É—um, ngol, kol, kal, ndu, nga, ngu, o, ko, É—am, ngal, nga, ka, kon. Each of the class attaches a –yee suffix to form an interrogative word. For instance, the É“e class attaches the –yee suffix to form É“eyee interrogative word in a sentence such as É“eyee on lamÉ—o leni? ‘Which people did the king send?’ ndeyee É“e ngari? ‘When did they come?’
The noun classes
Noun class is any classification of nouns according to semantic aspects such as animate, inanimate, neuter etc. (Trauth and Kazzazi 1998 p. 815). A group, category, collection or set of nouns sharing characteristics or attributes is what is referred to as their class. The class marker expresses the concept of the noun it belongs. According to Arnott (1970 p. 12), “The basis of the nominal system of Fula is a class system similar in kind to class systems found in many West African languages as well as in Bantu languages”. A noun (with the exception of pa proper noun and some abstract nouns) in Fulfulde must belong to a class and has to mark quantity. A noun can either be ordinary/normal, large, small, or tiny and depending on the dialect, there are between 25 and 28 classes in the language. (Mukoshy 1991). Although, Arnott (1979 p. 75) brought a general coverage of the meanings found in the various classesinn only 25 classes. In Fulfulde, there are bound-based morphs which are allomorphs of the classes. Examples of the bound-based morphs are as follows: -o/jo/wo/ko/É—o, -É“e/’en, -el/gel/lel/ngel/yel, - um/ngum/yum, -on/kon/lon/bon, -a/ga/la/wa/, -o/ko/ho/lo, -nde/de/re, -ndi/di/ri, -ndu/du/ru, -a/mba/ba/wa, -a/nga/ga/wa/ba, -ngal/ga/wal, -e/ngel/ge/ye, -i/ngi/gi/wi, -o/ngo/go/wo, - o/ngol/gol/wol, -u/ngu/gu/wu, -a/ka/ha, -kal/hal, -ki/hi, -o/ko/ho, -ol/kol/bol, - am/É—am/jam/ndam, -um/É—um/jum, -e/je/É—e/le/ye, -i/ji/É—i/li/’yi (Mukoshy 1991 p. 26). The classes in Fulfulde are divided into human and non-human class, augmentative class, diminutive class, pejorative class and neuter class. The human class consists of o and its plural É“e. The augmentative class is nga with its plural ko, the diminutive class is ngel with its plural kon, the pejorative class is ngum and the neuter class is É—um. The rest are the non-human classes with É—e and É—i as their plurals (Aminu 2015 p. 61). It is required in Fulfulde to change the suffix of a noun according to its noun class to form its plural, however, not more than one class can be attached to a noun root in Fulfulde (Aminu 2016 p. 8). Also, it is difficult to get an inseparable word in Fulfulde because of the noun class system (Ahmed, 2011).
In all the noun classes in Fulfulde, according to this paper, the –yee element can be affixed to any of them to form an interrogative word. Therefore, there are 14 logics presented on how to form interrogative words in the language and how to form their answers as ‘far demonstratives’ with –ya suffix as follows:
Logic 1:
#noun class# + -yee = interrogative word
When –yee suffix is added to a noun class, an interrogative word is formed. The examples are in the following table:
Table 1:
s/n | Noun class | Interrogative suffix | Interrogative word |
1 | O | -yee | mo[1]yee? |
2 | É“e | -yee | É“eyee? |
3 | É—e | -yee | É—eyee? |
4 | É—i | -yee | É—iyee? |
5 | Ki | -yee | kiyee,? |
6 | ngel | -yee | ngelyee? |
7 | nde | -yee | ndeyee? |
8 | nge | -yee | ngeyee? |
9 | Ka | -yee | kayee? |
10 | ngal | -yee | ngalyee? |
11 | É—am | -yee | É—amyee? |
12 | Kon | -yee | konyee? |
13 | Ko | -yee | koyee? |
14 | Ngu | -yee | nguyee? |
15 | Ndu | -yee | nduyee? |
16 | Nga | -yee | ngayee? |
17 | Kol | -yee | kolyee? |
18 | Kal | -yee | kalyee? |
19 | É—um | -yee | É—umyee? |
20 | ngol | -yee | ngolyee? |
21 | Ndi | -yee | ndiyee? |
22 | ngum | -yee | ngumyee?, |
23 | Ko | -yee | koyee? |
24 | Ngo | -yee | ngoyee? |
Logic 2:
/y/ → Ø / [+son] - /ee/.
Except in the case of konyee where /n/ → [ɲ] / - /y/ as in [koɲe] (bi-directional assimilation), the /y/ sound becomes deleted when it occurs inbetween sonorants /l,m,n/ and long vowel sound /ee/.
Example 1:
i. ngelyee? → ngelee?
ii. ngumyee? → ngumee?
iii. É—umyee? → É—umee?
iv. ngolyee? → ngolee?
v. kolyee? → kolee?
vi. kalyee? → kalee?
vii. É—amyee? → É—amee?
viii. ngalyee? → ngalee?
ix. konyee? → koɲee?
Logic 3:
#plural noun class# + -yee = plural interrogative word.
Out of the noun classes, there are five plural classes which are: É“e, É—e, É—i, ko, and kon which form plural interrogative words. When the suffix –yee is added to the plural noun classes, plural interrogative words are formed.
Example 2:
i. É“eyee? ‘who?, plural of o class’
ii. É—eyee? ‘what/which? plural of non-human class’
iii. É—iyee? ‘what/which?, plurl of non-human class’
iv. koyee? ‘what/which?, plual of nga class’
v. kone/koɲe? (*knee)‘what/which?, lural of ngel class’
WH questions
In other to mark interrogative words such as when, what, where, why, who and how, there are noun classes, ppronouns and other morphemes either free or bound that are involved.
Logic 4:
Xmorpheme ± -yee =5Ws and H
A morpheme, free or bound, can be attached with the –yee suffix to form what, when, where, why, who and how interrogative words.
Example 3:
i. ndeyee? ‘When’
ii. moyee? ‘Who’
iii. É—umee? ‘What’
iv. [2]ko nii? ‘Why’
v. toyee? ‘Where’
vi. noyee? ‘How’
The no- and to- preceding yee are adverbs of manner and place respectively, mo is a third person pronoun of o class, É—um is a neuter class and nde is a class of ‘time’, among others.
Logic 5:
kofree morpheme ± word(s) = interrogative word
The ko[3] is a free interrogative element which stands alone, and precedes a word or group of words to form an interrogative word.
Example 4:
i. ko a tammi? ‘what do you expect
ii. ko a laarata? ‘what are you looking at?’
iii. ko siifi ma? ‘what scratched you?’
iv. ko waÉ—i É“e doggataa? ‘why are they running?’
v. ko wa’i nii? ‘why is this way?’
vi. ko nii? ‘why?’
vii. ko? ‘is that?’
The allomorphs of noun classes
Each class in the classes mentioned has an allomorph that optionally proceeds the interrogative marker to ascertain its referent.
Example 5:
É“e → en, É—e → je, nge → he, ki → hi, ngel → yel, nde → re, É—i → ji, ngo → wo, ko → ho, ngum → um, ndi → ri, É—um → jum, ngol → wol, kol → hol, kal → hal, ndu → ru, nga → wa, ngu → wu, o/mo → jo/É—o, ko → ho, É—am → jam, ngal → wal, ka → ha, kon → hon.
Logic 6:
#noun class# + -yee (+allomorph) = interrogative referent.
An allomorph is optionally attached, together with the –yee suffix to a noun class to form an interrogative referent.
Table 2:
s/n | Noun class | Interrogative suffix | Allomorph | Interrogative referent |
1 | o/mo | -yee | jo/É—o, | moyeejo/moyeeÉ—o? |
2 | É“e | -yee | en | É“eye’en? |
3 | É—e | -yee | je | É—eyeeje? |
4 | É—i | -yee | ji | É—iyeeji? |
5 | ki | -yee | hi | kiyehi? |
6 | ngel | -yee | yel | ngeleyel? |
7 | nde | -yee | re | ndeyeere? |
8 | nge | -yee | he | ngeyehe? |
9 | ka | -yee | ha | kayeeha? |
10 | ngal | -yee | wal | ngalewal? |
11 | É—am | -yee | jam | É—ayeejam? |
12 | kon | -yee | hon | koɲehon? |
13 | ko | -yee | ho | koyeeho? |
14 | ngu | -yee | wu | nguyewu? |
15 | ndu | -yee | ru | nduyeeru? |
16 | nga | -yee | wa | ngayewa? |
17 | kol | -yee | hol | kolehol? |
18 | kal | -yee | hal | kalehal? |
19 | É—um | -yee | jum | É—umeejum? |
20 | ngol | -yee | wol | ngolewol? |
21 | ndi | -yee | ri | ndiyeeri? |
22 | ngum | -yee | um | ngumeeyum? |
23 | ko | -yee | ho | koyeho? |
24 | ngo | -yee | wo | ngoyewo? |
Logic 7:
#noun class# + -yaa = answer
In other to answer the questions triggered by the –yee suffix attached to noun classes, in a logical chiasmthe us, -yaa suffix with low stress can be attached to any of the noun classes and answer the questions which demonstrate a far object.
Table 3:
s/n | Noun class | Interrogative suffix | Interrogative word | Suffix | Answer |
1 | o | -yee | moyee? | -yaa | Oyaa |
2 | É“e | -yee | É“eyee? | -yaa | É“eyaa |
3 | É—e | -yee | É—eyee? | -yaa | É—eyaa |
4 | É—i | -yee | É—iyee? | -yaa | É—iyaa |
5 | ki | -yee | kiyee,? | -yaa | Kiyaa |
6 | ngel | -yee | ngelyee? | -yaa | ngelyaa |
7 | nde | -yee | ndeyee? | -yaa | ndeyaa |
8 | nge | -yee | ngeyee? | -yaa | ngeyaa |
9 | ka | -yee | kayee? | -yaa | Kayaa |
10 | ngal | -yee | ngalyee? | -yaa | ngalyaa |
11 | É—am | -yee | É—amyee? | -yaa | É—amyaa |
12 | kon | -yee | konyee? | -yaa | konyaa |
13 | ko | -yee | koyee? | -yaa | Koyaa |
14 | ngu | -yee | nguyee? | -yaa | nguyaa |
15 | ndu | -yee | nduyee? | -yaa | nduyaa |
16 | nga | -yee | ngayee? | -yaa | ngayaa |
17 | kol | -yee | kolyee? | -yaa | kolyaa |
18 | kal | -yee | kalyee? | -yaa | Kalyaa |
19 | É—um | -yee | É—umyee? | -yaa | É—umyaa |
20 | ngol | -yee | ngolyee? | -yaa | ngolyaa |
21 | ndi | -yee | ndiyee? | -yaa | ndiyaa |
22 | ngum | -yee | ngumyee? | -yaa | ngumyaa |
23 | ko | -yee | koyee? | -yaa | Koyaa |
24 | ngo | -yee | ngoyee? | -yaa | ngoyaa |
Logic 8:
/y/ → Ø / [+son] - /aa/.
Except in the case of konyaa where /n/ → [ɲ] / - /y/ as in [koɲaa], the /y/ sound becomes deleted when it occurs inbetween sonorants /l,m,n/ and long vowel sound /aa/.
Example 6:
i. ngelyaa → ngelaa
ii. ngumyaa → ngumaa
iii. É—umyaa → É—umaa
iv. ngolyaa → ngolaa
v. kolyaa → kolaa
vi. kalyaa → kalaa
vii. É—amyaa → É—amaa
viii. ngalyaa → ngalaa
ix. konyaa → koɲaa
The five plural class interrogatives can have their answers as follows:
Example 7:
i. É“eyee? → É“eyaa ‘who?, plural of o class’
ii. É—eyee? → É—eyaa ‘what/which?, plural of non-human class’
iii. É—iyee? → É—iyaa ‘what/which?, plural of non-human class’
iv. koyee? → koyaa ‘what/which?, plural of nga class’
v. koɲee? → koɲaa ‘what/which? plural of ngel class’
In the interrogative answer, none of the allomorphs in the 24 classes mentioned proceeds to the suffix to ascertain its referent, as it occurs in the interrogative questions.
Logic 9:
Question = Answer
noun class + -yee (+ allomorph) = noun class + -yaa
In a general sense, a noun class in Fulfulde adds the –yee suffix to form an interrogative word, and adds an allomorph of the noun class after the suffix to form an interrogative word with a specific referent to its noun class. To answer the question asked, the a –yaa suffix is attached to a specific noun class in the environment of the interrogative –yee suffix.
Table 4:
s/n | Noun class | Interrogative word | Interrogative word with referent | Answer |
1 | o | moyeejo? | moyeejo/moyeeÉ—o? | oyaa |
2 | É“e | É“eyee? | É“eye’en? | É“eyaa |
3 | É—e | É—eyee? | É—eyeeje? | É—eyaa |
4 | É—i | É—iyee? | É—iyeeji? | É—iyaa |
5 | Ki | kiyee? | kiyehi? | kiyaa |
6 | Ngel | ngelee? | ngeleyel? | ngelaa |
7 | Nde | ndeyee? | ndeyeere? | ndeyaa |
8 | Nge | ngeyee? | ngeyehe? | ngeyaa |
9 | Ka | kayee? | kayeeha? | kayaa |
10 | ngal | ngalee? | ngalewal? | ngalaa |
11 | É—am | É—ayee? | É—ayeejam? | É—amaa |
12 | Kon | koɲee? | koɲehon? | koɲaa |
13 | Ko | koyee? | koyeeho? | koyaa |
14 | Ngu | nguyee? | nguyewu? | nguyaa |
15 | Ndu | nduyee? | nduyeeru? | nduyaa |
16 | Nga | ngayee? | ngayewa? | ngayaa |
17 | Kol | kolee? | kolehol? | kolaa |
18 | Kal | kalee? | kalehal? | kalaa |
19 | É—um | É—umee? | É—umeejum? | É—umaa |
20 | Ngol | ngolee? | ngolewol? | ngolaa |
21 | Ndi | ndiyee? | ndiyeeri? | ndiyaa |
22 | ngum | ngumee? | ngumeeyum? | ngumaa |
23 | Ko | koyee? | koyeho? | koyaa |
24 | ngo | ngoyee? | ngoyewo? | ngoyaa |
In all the examples, the /y/ sound becomes deleted in-between sonorants /l, m, n/ and vowels /ee, aa/.
Logic 10:
/y/ → /Ø/ / [+son] - /ee, aa/
In the cases of the absence of sonorants at the end of the classes, there is an ablaut of vowels –ee ↔ –aa to form yee ↔ yaa, as in nduyee? ↔ nduyaa, É“eyee? ↔ É“eyaa, kiyee? ↔ kiyaa and so on. In the presence of sonorants, the /y/ sound is deleted and the vowels ablaut from –ee ↔ -aa, as in ngalee? ↔ ngalaa, É—umee? ↔ É—umaa, koɲee? ↔ koɲaa.
Logic 11:
Class A ≠ Class B / -ee↔-aa
None of the classes can switch to another, in class or allomorph, to answer a question. For instance, class A is not equal to class B when it occurs before the -ee or -aa vowels.
Example 8:
a) i) É“eyee = É“eye’en = É“eyaa
≠
ii) É“eyee ≠ É“eyeere ≠ ndeyaa
b) i) kiyee = kiyehi = kiyaa
≠
ii) kiyee ≠ ngoyehi ≠ nduyaa
c) i) ngolee = ngolewol = ngolaa
≠
ii) ngolee ≠ ngalewal ≠ nguyaa
Logic 12:
Plural class ≠ Singular class / -ee↔-aa
Plural classes É“e, É—e, É—i, ko, and kon and their allomorphs cannot answer singular classes through the -ee and –aa ablaut.
Example 9:
Logic 13:
Xclass + -yel + -yee = interrogative word.
Except for the plural classes É“e, É—e, É—i, ko, kon, neuter class É—um, pejorative class ngum, and liquid class É—am, all other classes can affix yel allomorph of diminutive ngel class to form an interrogative word. However, a metathesis occurs in the process from yelyee to yeeyel. That is to say:
y1e2l3y4e5e6 → y4e5e6y1e2l3
Example 10:
i. Kiyelyee → Kiyeeyel?
ii. Ndeyelyee → Ndeyeeyel?
iii. Ngeyelyee → Ngeyeeyel?
iv. Ngayelyee → Ngaleeyel?
v. Nguyelyee → Nguyeeyel?
vi. Nduyelyee → Nduyeeyel?
vii. Koyelyee → Koleeyel?
viii. Kayelyee → Kaleeyel?
ix. Ngoyelyee → Ngoleeyel?
x. Ndiyelyee → Ndiyeeyel?
xi. Ngoyelyee → Ngoyeeyel?
Logic 14:
Xclass + Ø interrogative + -(y)el = interrogative word
The interrogative –yee suffix disappears and leaves only the -yel suffix to serve the purpose. Thus, /y/ → Ø/[+son]-/ee/.
Example 11:
xii. Kiyeyel → kiyel?
xiii. Ndeyeyel → ndeyel?
xiv. Ngeyeyel → ngeyel?
xv. Ngaleyel → ngalel?
xvi. Nguyeyel → nguyel?
xvii. Nduyeyel → nduyel?
xviii. Koleyel → kolel?
xix. Kaleyel → kalel?
xx. Ngoleyel → ngolel?
xxi. Ndiyeyel → ndiyel?
xxii. Ngoyeyel → ngoyel?
All answer words of the above have –yaa as the usual suffix, with no indication of the diminutive yel suffix.
Example 12:
i. Kiyel? → kiyaa
ii. Ndeyel? → ndeyaa
iii. Ngeyel? → ngeyaa
iv. Ngalel? → ngalaa
v. Nguyel? → nguyaa
vi. Nduyel? → nduyaa
vii. Kolel? → kolaa
viii. Kalel? → kalaa
ix. Ngolel? → ngolaa
x. Ndiyel? → ndiyaa
xi. Ngoyel? → ngoyaa
Conclusion
Structurally, interrogative words in Fulfulde language are any of the Fulfulde noun classes, some pronouns and a few adverbs that have –yee with high stress as a suffix. The noun class is any classification of nouns according to semantic aspects such as animate, inanimate, neuter etc. A group, category, collection or set of nouns sharing characteristics or attributes is what is referred to as their class. The class marker expresses the concept of the noun it belongs. The classes in Fulfulde are divided into human and non-human classes, augmentative class, diminutive class, pejorative class and neuter class. The formations and the answers of the interrogatives follow some logical ordering from simplex to complex. The paper found out that all the noun classes form an interrogative word by adding the -yee affix, and forming an answer through ablaut of -yee to –yaa morphemes. In other to mark interrogative words such as when, what, where, why, who and how, there are noun classes, pronouns, and other morphemes either free or bound that are involved such as in Logic 4:Xmorpheme ± -yee =5Ws and H. Phonological processes such as assimilation, deletion and metathesis occur in the formation of the interrogatives.
In a general sense, a noun class in Fulfulde adds the –yee suffix to form an interrogative word, and adds an allomorph of the noun class after the suffix to form an interrogative word with a specific referent to its noun class. To answer the question asked, a –yaa suffix is attached to a specific noun class in the environment of the interrogative –yee suffix.
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