Friends and Foes in the Battle Field: Unraveling the History of Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Jigawa State, 1991-2015

How to cite this paper: A. R. Mohammed & Kamilu Musa (2025). Friends and Foes in the Battle Field: Unraveling the History of Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Jigawa State, 1991-2015. Middle East Res J. Humanities Soc. Sci, 5(1): 1-13.

Friends and Foes in the Battle Field: Unraveling the History of Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Jigawa State, 1991-2015

By

A.R. Mohammed
Department of History and International Studies
Sule Lamido University Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria
arufaimohd@gmail.com

&

Kamilu Musa
Department of History and International Studies
Sule Lamido University Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria
kamilu.musa@slu.edu.ng
+2348066501463

Abstract

This paper examines the nuanced historical trajectories, causes, and effects of farmer-herder conflicts in Jigawa State. It also examines the role of the state government and other bodies in resolving and managing these conflicts, especially from 1991 to 2015. Arguably, the major factors responsible for these conflicts in Jigawa State include effects of the climate change, overpopulation of herders, indiscriminate destruction of unharvested crops by herders, encroachment on cattle routes, and denial of access to water points by farmers. Other contributory factors include occasional assaults on Fulani women, growth of agro-pastoralism, expansion of farming into pastures due to population explosion and technological advancements, cattle rustling, burning of rangelands, overgrazing of fallow lands, floods, and aggressive behavior from competing parties. The conflicts engendered food shortages and increased food prices, loss of lives, destruction of property, social dislocation, and estrangement. In response, the Jigawa State government took measures and implemented policies intending to curtail the phenomenon. This paper unravels the conflict, its consequences, and steps taken by the government to manage it using historical methods and sources such as published and unpublished materials, interviews, and observations.

Keywords: History, Famer-Herder Conflict, Conflict Resolution, Jigawa State

Introduction

Conflicts between farmers and herders have existed in Africa for a long time and have become a recurring security challenge in several African countries, including Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad Republic, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Ghana, Kenya, Niger Republic, Nigeria, Togo, and many others. With the arrival of migrant groups such as the Bakoloji, Bororo, and Udawa, these clashes have become more frequent, leading to the development and use of more advanced weaponry in the struggle for limited resources. Consequently, the conflicts have escalated in intensity, resulting in fatalities and property damage[1]^.

Herdsmen have a long history of migration to West Africa, where they established contacts with sedentary farmers and worked together to share available resources. Historically, there are no records of significant conflicts between farmers and herders in the pre-colonial period. However, research indicates the existence of competition for scarce resources and an interdependent relationship between the two groups. During the colonial era, farmer-herder conflicts underwent dramatic changes, particularly in the social and physical settings. This shift altered the traditional land tenure system and resource utilization practices that had previously existed, as well as the compatibility between farmers and herders. The colonial authorities introduced conflict resolution techniques that were foreign to the local population and aligned with their interests as colonial rulers. Consequently, this led to a decrease in indigenous land ownership, subsequent shortage of resources, and worsening environmental degradation[2]^.

Historically, farmers and herders in Africa had lived together peacefully and exchanged available resources. However, inadequate resources and insecurity due to climate change, along with ethnic, religious, and indigene-settler dichotomies, as well as several other factors, have distorted the symbiotic relationship that had existed between them over the years. Currently, the security and stability of many African nations, particularly in the West and Central regions of the continent, are seriously threatened by conflicts between farmers and herders. As a result, numerous people have been killed and injured, and significant amounts of property have been lost in these conflicts[3]^. In light of the aforementioned background, this study emphasizes the conflicts between farmers and Fulani herders in the Jigawa state of Nigeria. It examines the effects of these conflicts on the state. Additionally, the study assesses the role of the Jigawa State Government and other bodies in resolving and managing the conflicts between farmers and herders, with a particular focus on evaluating the effectiveness of the state government’s measures to prevent their occurrence.

Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Northern Nigeria

The phenomenon of farmer-herder conflicts is pervasive and has taken a different dimension in northern Nigeria. Herdsmen in northern Nigeria consist of different ethnic groups and the leading group is the Fulbe or Fulani, constituting over 90 percent. The Fulani started migrating from the Sene-gambia River basin into present-day Northern Nigeria from around the 13th century.[4] On the other hand, there are quite many other ethnic groups of herders in the region. They include Arabs, Kanuri, Kanembu, Tuareg, and Teda, or Toubou/Tedu[5].

Historically, conflicts between farmers and herders have existed in northern Nigeria for as long as agriculture has been practiced. At the turn of the 20th century, the herders began to move southward due to the collapse of the Sokoto Caliphate in 1903, the British colonial policies, and the imposition of a cattle tax (Jangali)[6]. Generally, many write-ups have identified numerous causes of farmer-herder conflicts in different parts of northern Nigeria which include climate change, overpopulation of herders due to migration, destruction of unharvested crops by cattle, assaults by herders on non-Fulani women and vice versa, encroachment on cattle routes and water points, growth of agro-pastoralism, expansion of farming on pastures due to population growth and technological advancements, scarcity of freshwater, cattle rustling or thefts, burning of rangelands, overgrazing of fallow lands, ethnic or racial stereotyping, and ineffective conflict management mechanisms or techniques. However, conflicts between farmers and herders were also largely driven by the expansion of irrigation farming and the growing usage of pasture on uncultivated land in northern Nigeria[7]. Such conflicts have resulted in the loss of lives as well as properties, animals, crops, plants, etc. They have also had negative effects on national security[8]. The months of May and September every year, have been identified as the most violent period of conflict between farmers and herders every year. This is because it is the period the herders moved their herds back north as the vegetation started to emerge. The states of Benue, Kaduna, Nassarawa, Plateau, and Taraba, among others, have been considered as the hotbed of disputes between farmers and herders in the region[9]. The prevalence of farmer-herder conflicts in Northern Nigeria is because the predominant population of the region practices farming or herding[10]^.

Farmer-herder conflicts have therefore continued to extend and transverse the northern region by the day and have in recent decades metamorphosed into cattle rustling, banditry, kidnapping for ransom, social dislocation, etc. Consequently, these worsening conditions in the northern region forced many herders to migrate to the southern parts of the country and to acquire light weapons like AK-47s for the protection of themselves and their herds. As a result, hundreds of people have been killed, and many others have suffered numerous injuries of varying degrees.[11] A significant proportion of the troubled societies' have also been displaced. Accordingly, such fights have worsened inter-communal rivalries and damaged numerous farms and crops, leading to the emergence of ethnic local militia groups among the opposing communities, and severely hindering the development of Nigeria's agricultural industry[12].

From February 2007 to 2014 many farmer-herder clashes happened across northern Nigeria and some few states in southern Nigeria with many fatalities on both sides. For example, people from both parties were killed in the northern states of Adamawa, Benue, Borno, Jigawa, Nassarawa, Niger, Plateau, etc. Another report indicated that throughout the months of 2008, 31 people were murdered as a result of farmer-herder conflicts across northern Nigeria. Similarly, in 2009, 83 people were killed, in 2010, 39 people were also killed. However, in 2011, the number of people killed was 116 across northern Nigeria. However, in 2012 similar killings were recorded in northern states with over 42 fatalities and over 500 cows were lost. Over 59 people from both parties were killed in 2013, and in 2014, over 10 people were reported to have been killed. It’s very important to note that these fatalities occurred as a result of several farmer-herder conflicts not only in Jigawa state but across northern Nigeria[13]. Notwithstanding, Nigerian and international records have failed to provide accurate statistics on the fatalities from the conflicts between farmers and herders.

Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Jigawa State

Jigawa State is among the seven states of the north-western geo-political region of Nigeria. It was created in August 1991 from the old Kano State. The State is made up of twenty-seven local government areas and five emirates. The emirates are Dutse, Gumel, Hadejia, Kazaure, and Ringim. More than eighty percent of Jigawa State’s population is engaged in agriculture and related activities as a large percentage of its land is certified to be arable[14]^.

Jigawa state is one of the states in northern Nigeria that have been severely hit by farmer-herder conflicts. These conflicts have been more frequent during the harvesting period when the herders are migrating to the Southern states of Nigeria and Cameroon, where there are greener pastures, and also throughout the rainy season after they return from these regions. In Jigawa State, farmer-herder conflicts in the state mostly occurred in the towns and villages closer to international borders and cattle routes. The pastoral Fulani from the Sahel region usually passed through those areas while moving southward. The clashes have also been prevalent in the northeastern parts of the State along the River Hadejia basin which began from Dabi town in the Ringim local government area up to Guri local government area of the State. This is because the areas attracted herders and farmers due to their suitability for agriculture and pastures throughout the year. This has led to violent conflicts between the two disputing parties over the available scarce resources[15]^.

There are a number of factors responsible for farmer-herder conflicts in the State. One of the principal factors is the fact that most parts of the state are semi-arid climate in nature which makes farming activities attractive. The State is, therefore, agrarian in nature with over eighty percent of its population deriving their livelihood from crop production or agro-allied business and other related activities. It has a total land area of 24,742 square kilometers and a great percentage of this land is certified to be arable. The State also has a total fadama (wetlands) size of 3,433.79 km which represents about 14% of its total landmass. These factors have led to the concentration of farmers and herders in the State competing for available scarce resources[16]^.

In addition, Jigawa state is a gateway to herders’ migratory routes, because it has four sets of stock routes; the International route which is 50 meters in size; the National route which is 30 meters in size; the Inter-state route which is 25 meters size and Intra-state route which has 15 meters size. Meanwhile, five diverse international cattle routes run through some local government areas of the State. Consequently, herders to and from Niger Republic, Chad, and other parts of West Africa pass through Jigawa state. These movements usually caused disputes between herders and farmers. This is because herders usually damage farmer’s unharvested crops. The international cattle routes include the following: the first one started from Bursale in Niger Republic passing via Birniwa, Kirikasamma, and Guri local government areas of Jigawa State to Balma in Bauchi state as well as other states of Nigeria. The second route began from Kanwarin also in Niger Republic passing through some local government areas of Jigawa state and finally moving to Gombe state and other states. The third route started from Adar in Niger Republic passing via Maigatari, Suletankarkar, Dutse, and Birnin Kudu local government areas all in Jigawa state then to Ningi local government area of Bauchi state. The fourth international cattle route started directly from Guri in the Niger Republic transiting through the Birniwa local government area of Jigawa state and then to Katagum local government area of Bauchi state. The fifth stock route is called Niger-Katsina which started from Niger Republic and passed through Rorai and Maganta in Gwiwa and Zangon Kaya in Roni local government areas of Jigawa state respectively and moved to Kano state and other states across the country (Nigeria)[17]. However, most of the international, national, and intra-state stock routes have been seriously encroached at divergent places and across the State. For instance, one would find in definite places the following sizes of encroachment by farmers: 9 meters, 15 meters, 20 meters, and rarely 30 meters. These international or migratory stock routes linked with other cattle routes within the state also connected herders with grazing reserves and watering points. These facilities are spread all over the state so that herders travel a few kilometers to graze and water their herds all year round[18]. 

According to a report[19], Jigawa state is one of the states in northern Nigeria that is badly affected by flooding particularly during the rainy season. Persistent floods are a common occurrence in the state, which has frequently devastated the state, causing widespread damage and inflicting destruction on farmlands. Although this flood did not only affect the farmers, it also severely affected the herders by damaging grass which consequently led to the loss of several herds. For instance, in one incident, one herder lost over 30 cows and another one lost over 20 cows including goats and sheep[20]. This uncertainty forced the herders to migrate to the highlands which consequently also forced the farmers to move to the non-flooded areas for farming. On the other hand, the herders used this opportunity to graze their herds over farmers’ unharvested and irrigated crops which occurs between September and November each year. According to a herder:  

Prior to the floods no one among us was permitted to graze in any farm not even with a hen, but in the aftermath of the floods, we didn't think twice about grazing our herds on any farm, even if it belonged to the neighbors, regardless of their tribes.²¹

Thus, this herder has reiterated the factor of flooding in the causation of conflicts between the two parties.

According to our informants, the herders are of the view that the violation of government existing policies by the farmers’ encroachment on the cattle routes, designated grazing reserves, and also the farmers’ attitude of blocking herders' access to water points among others were the main causes of the conflicts. Consequently, these actions frustrated and forced the herders to deliberately enter and damage farmers’ unharvested crops. In addition, both disputing parties had an attitude of violent behavior, because of this attitude the farmers were wont to take the law into their own hands if they found that their crops had been damaged by the herders, while the herders would react in like manner as a result of which violent conflict would erupt[21]. Some other reasons fuelled such conflicts. These include the extension of farmlands into grazing reserves which could be necessitated by the increase in human population, adoption of mechanized farming, large-scale farming projects, and government participation in crop farming schemes. Others are the involvement of new participants in farming from the cities and urban areas as well as civil servants because of economic crises; and the utilization of cultivated and uncultivated farmlands all the year round i.e. from rainy season farming to irrigation farming[22].

Herders also accused farmers of intentionally burning down their farms after harvest to prevent the former from grazing their herds in the fodder resources. Such acts have contributed to damaging the existing cordial relations between the two parties. The herders also blamed the farmers for having illicit affairs with their women. This is because the adult male members from the host communities usually hung out with herders/Fulani women and girls hawking cow milk in the neighborhood. This unruly advancement provoked many adult male herders to retaliate by intentionally destroying the farmers’ crops. Such incidents invariably fuelled conflicts between them which could lead to loss of lives and properties. Although the farmers sometimes did accuse the herders of also having affairs with their women, this allegation is much more pronounced among the host communities where the Fulani women carried out their cow milk business daily since the herders usually resided in bushes. Before one finds a Fulani herder hanging out with a local Hausa woman, one could find dozens of Hausa farmers from the host communities associating freely with Fulani women[23].

The farmers and other stakeholders interviewed are unanimous in their assertion that the herders were in the habit of consuming non-prescribed drugs before they went out to herd. As a result, they often destroyed farmers' crops under the influence of drugs, which led to hostilities[24]. Moreover, the conflicts between farmers and herders have thus persisted in Jigawa State, especially in the local government areas of Guri and Kirikasamma. This is because of many factors, including the influence of some traditional leaders and politicians as well as some dishonest security personnel through the actions of ‘Yan Dila da Laya (herders’ patron) ²⁵. The number of farmers and herders was also growing every year, herders are usually coming from Niger Republic yearly, cattle routes are being encroached on continuously while grazing reserves are being blocked by farmers as the latter are being purposefully destroyed, and both parties are reacting to each other aggressively^26. The sources of livelihood and means of survival for farmers and herders in the state have therefore been seriously threatened by these conflicts27

Incidents of Farmer-Herder Conflicts in the Local Government Areas

The phenomenon of farmer-herder conflicts in Jigawa state continued to occur all over the state from Jigawa north-central to Jigawa north-west and Jigawa north-east with minor cases reported in Kazaure local government area. In the same vein, such conflicts were intensified in the wetlands areas of the state because of the high concentration thereof farmers and herders. For example, in the Birnin Kudu local government area, several such conflicts occurred between 2006 and 2008 among the Migawa and Hambarawa Fulani herders and Malamawar Gangara, Babaldu, and Samamiya. Similarly, in 2009 and 2010 conflicts were recorded between  Kura and Larau Fulani herders and Tukuda farmers over land acquisition and other related issues. Also, between 2012 and 2013 there were incidents of confrontations between the Fulani herders of Rakatika village and the farmers of Kwarsa village. Other crises occurred between Rumbuwuya Fulani herders and Lika farmers from 2013 to 2015 as well as between Yabaza Fulani herders and China'a, Dagalma, and Tawakal farmers from 2014 through 2015. In Jahun local government area similar conflicts had erupted between the Fulani herders and local farmers particularly in areas like Budumai, Darai, Gunka, Harbo Tsohuwa, and Kale throughout the study. Also, farmer-herder conflicts occurred in some areas of the Ringim local government area such as Gabarin, Sankara, Yakasawar Tudu, Yakasawar Kwari, Sintilmawa etc.[25] Maigatari's local government also witnessed such conflicts because of its strategic location on the international cattle routes from the Niger Republic. The clashes occurred in places like Balarabe, Jajeri, Makwallo/Turbus[26]^.

Like any other local government area of the state, Auyo also witnessed farmer-herder conflicts specifically in villages such as Akumusin, Gatafa, and Marina, etc. from 1991 to 2015. There were quite many incidents that happened from 2002 to 2014 in which about fifteen to twenty farmer-herder conflicts in the local government area were recorded. For example, in 2020, there was an incident in which a farmer found some herders on his farm and he began to attack their animals. This resulted in a severe punishment for the herders who were ordered to compensate the farmer after deliberations that involved both associations of the farmers and herders as well as the Divisional Police Officer (D.P.O). It was reported that one cow was sold to pay for the compensation[27].

However, in the whole of Jigawa state even before and after the creation of the state in 1991 up to the present, Guri and Kirikasamma were the most affected local government areas in the state concerning farmer-herder conflicts due to the number of factors mentioned above. In the Guri local government area, for instance, there were pieces of evidence of such clashes particularly in towns like Abonabo and Kadira which are the major wetland areas in the local government area. Consequently, there is a high concentration of farmers and herders. Also, a series of such conflicts were recorded in Gagiya, Musa, Adiani, Abur, Dawa, Garmagiwa Gabas, Garin Malam, and Arichasko[28]. Kirikasamma local government area similarly witnessed persistent farmer-herder conflicts in Busuku, Gajere Mai Kasuwa, Gubusun, Marma, Matara-Wada, Marawaji, Saleri, Tudu a Likoro among others with great losses to both rivalries[29].

The statistics of the farmer-herder conflicts in the local government areas of the state are very scanty and there are no official figures at the time of writing this paper. Our informants estimated it to occur more than twenty times every year in both Ringim and Kirikasama local government areas. Kirikasamma local government area is divided into two parts with regards to farmer-herder conflicts, that is, north and south of the tarred road. The southern parts experienced more frequent conflicts because of its more fertile land and, therefore, a greater concentration of farmers and herders in the area. Auyo's local government area was also an epicenter of farmer-herder conflicts in the state, due to its soil fertility and overpopulation of herds in the local government. These conflicts occur around fifty times every year before, during, and after harvest and or during irrigation seasons in different places within the local government area[30]. It is important to note at this point that, farmer-herder conflicts are categorized into two, that is, real hostilities which led to loss of lives, properties, and injuries as well as open hostilities, and disputes which, with the intervention of mediators did not result to real conflict.  

Effects of Farmer-Herder Conflicts in Jigawa State                                                      

The numerous incidents of conflicts between farmers and cattle herders have led to a high level of insecurity in many states of Nigeria, particularly in the northern states, where these clashes have become violent. This menace has now metamorphosed into rural banditry, cattle rustling kidnapping for ransom, etc. These phenomena are not new episodes, but they have increased in frequency, become more violent, and are so political that they are creating tensions across different ethnic groups and religions.[31]

However, since the creation of Jigawa state in 1991 up to 2015, the state has experienced several disputes between farmers and herders which have brought about some negative consequences that have affected the socio-economic, political, ecological, and demographic condition of the state. In addition, armed banditry, rural insecurity, and the spread of light weapons have also been the aftermath of these conflicts. Furthermore, the clashes have endangered human lives and hindered the economic development of the state in particular and Nigeria in general.[32] For example, in places where such conflicts had occurred, they triggered a decline in the production and distribution of goods and services for both parties. It also brought about threats to rural settlements and caused fear, anxiety, and mistrust within and among the communities. The confusion resulting from the conflicts led to a loss of lives and properties, underproduction, inflation, hunger, and malnutrition among others. Also, many villages and settlements were destroyed all over the state.[33]

For example, within two years, that is, from 1993 and 1995, the state witnessed some of the worst farmer-herder conflicts in which over 82 homes were set on fire. In 1994 alone 13 nomads, two farmers, and a mobile police officer were murdered. Accordingly, many homes, crops, and animals valued at millions of naira were lost. During the same period, 16 villages were destroyed and tens of people were murdered in Guri local government area alone[34]. In the Gajiya town of Guri local government area, a military personnel who was trying to mediate in the conflict between the farmers and herders was killed[35].

One of the important positive effects of the farmer-herder conflicts in Nigeria in general and Jigawa state in particular is that various governments at each level have initiated measures to address the lingering menace as well as mitigate the occurrence of such clashes in the future.

Farmer-Herder Conflicts Resolution Mechanisms in Jigawa State

Farmer-herder conflict resolution mechanisms are in two forms: short-term and long-term. The former can be more easily and effectively resolved than the latter through adopting methods of negotiation, mediation, and adjudication. The stakeholders for example study all the factors responsible for such clashes and offer suggestions as well as sustainable solutions. Generally, the long-term conflict resolution mechanism is more problematic because its procedure is hard to evaluate, understand, and resolve. It is also more time-consuming as it involves improving the basic needs and providing social amenities for the disputing parties; removing hostility and rivalry, and reducing tension. However, most of the disagreeing parties were usually unwilling to voluntarily concede their divergent interests without external intervention from the local, state, and or federal governments as the case may be, or by non-governmental organizations[36].

The activities of some civil society organizations, like the All Farmers Association of Nigeria (AFAN) and Miyetti Allah Cattle Breeders Association of Nigeria (MACBAN), have been very instrumental in the efforts to reduce the conflicts between the herders and farmers to the barest minimum in the State. These civil society organisations are made up of the representatives of farmers and herders and both have branches in each local government area of the State. They have played a vital role in the prevention and resolution of the conflicts in Jigawa state in particular and Nigeria in general. The organizations tried to intervene, mediate, and resolve conflicts whenever they occurred or were about to occur. They could summon the disputing parties to the negotiation table, listen to both sides and then offer suggestions or advice for resolving the conflict. For example, such advice could be a verbal agreement with a promise that the perpetrator(s) would not commit such an act again or the payment of compensation to the victim(s) in the case of damage or destruction of crops. The victim could be advised or could agree to pardon the perpetrator(s) and that would settle the matter. If the conflict could not be resolved at this level, then it would be moved to the next level of action i.e. to the Police for further negotiation[37]. Both AFAN and MACBAN are incorporated into the Jigawa State Government Programme for Preventing and Resolving Farmer-Herder Conflicts. In fact, they played a major role in this program by monitoring the activities of both parties and reporting their findings to the appropriate authorities particularly the local government councils for action[38].  

In response to the prevalence of farmer-herder conflicts in the state, the Jigawa state governments from 1991 up to the period under study have made concrete efforts towards resolving or preventing the occurrence of the conflicts. Initially, a Farmers-Herdsmen Mediation Committee was established in the State in 2001. The Committee had branches at the local government levels as well as ward levels across the State. Its objectives were to intervene and resolve farmer-herder conflicts in the State or offer recommendations to that effect. However, the efforts in the period before 2007 were ineffective because of a lack of determination by the previous governments to bring sustainable solutions to the clashes[39]. The most effective State government efforts to tackle, or prevent the occurrence of farmer-herder conflicts in the State were made from 2012 to 2013 with the introduction of multi-dimensional approaches towards resolving the crises. The measures brought about relative peace in the State concerning farmer-herder conflicts. In fact, Jigawa state is now regarded as one of the states that have relative peace in Nigeria[40].

During the period, the Jigawa state government categorized farmer-herder conflict resolution mechanisms into long-term and short-term measures to address, resolve, and prevent the occurrence of such conflicts in the state. The stakeholders were mandated to examine all the root causes of farmer-herder conflicts in the state and offer suggestions and recommendations for finding lasting solutions to the conflicts. In response, the state government established the Grazing Reserves and Development Committee which demarcated and mapped out as well as gazetted the grazing reserves. For example, the state government had established over 400 grazing reserves out of which 57 were gazetted and equipped with amenities like watering basins, windmills, power pumps, boreholes, and improved grasses. In addition, some of the grazing reserves were fenced with barbed wires[41].

Another long-term measure that was introduced between 2014 and 2015 towards enhancing pastoralism in the state was the launching of an animal vaccination exercise by the state government. For instance, three million, four hundred and thirty-eight thousand and five hundred and ninety (3,438,590) cattle were vaccinated. At the same time, one million, six hundred and eleven thousand and one hundred and ninety-seven (1,611,197) sheep and goats were immunized and fifty-three thousand and four hundred fifty (53,450) dogs were also vaccinated against rabies. Consequently, the killer diseases that had infected animals regularly in the state declined significantly. The state government also included poultry in the programme to control the spread of Newcastle disease. This far-reaching social policy was not restricted to the farmers, animals and pastoralists alone. It also accommodated the children of the herdsmen. For example, the state government improved the quality of the existing nomadic schools and established new ones across the state to accommodate a large population of Fulani children. It also funded, equipped, and staffed all the nomadic schools in the State while ensuring that the children were taught both Islamic and Western education[42].

Between 2012 and 2015, the State government restored the initial demarcations of the stock routes and maintained them. In addition, 50, 30 and 15 meters distances respectively were designated for Federal, State and local government-owned roads thus ensuring that all cattle routes in the state remained accessible to herders[43]^.

In 2013, the Local Government Farmers-Herdsmen Committee was established in the state (known as the Local Government Sub-Committee) to monitor the conflicts within its jurisdiction and execute as well as enforce state government measures towards resolving farmer-herder conflicts. It was tasked to settle farmer-herder conflicts that had bedeviled the state through various mechanisms. It was also mandated to enlighten farmers and herders on the importance of living together in peace. The committee comprises representatives from various organizations and associations, including the Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps (NSCDC), Police, AFAN and MACBAN, as well as the Supervisory Councilor and H.O.D Agriculture in every local government of the state. Regular meetings were held to discuss the progress or otherwise of the crises and report any issue that was beyond their control to the appropriate authority in the local government or state government for further action. Motor cycles were also distributed to the committees and the local government leaderships of AFAN and MACBAN to enhance their performance[44]^. The state government, introduced and implemented compensation measures in order to prevent the victims of any of the conflicts from carrying out reprisal attacks.

The Jigawa State Farmers-Herdsmen Board was established in 2012 and commenced operation on 28th November of the same year to manage and prevent farmer-herder conflicts in the state[45]. International intervention and collaboration between the Jigawa state government and the Damagaran state government of Niger Republic was also implemented to resolve conflicts. Several meetings were held between the two state governments in order to find lasting solutions to such crises and the measures taken included extending the stay of herders at Gumsi grazing area until the farmers in Jigawa state have harvested their crops as well as providing alternative water sources for herders at Gumsi grazing area. Gumsi is a very large international grazing area located in Damagaran in Niger Republic and Macina in Yobe state, Nigeria attracting over a million cattle annually from Nigeria, Niger and other West African and Central African countries[46].

One of the most important measures in farmer-herder conflict management in the state was the establishment in 2013, of special courts to handle farmer-herder cases, in collaboration with the Ministry of Justice and Farmers-Herdsmen Board. All the unsettled farmer-herder clashes at traditional and security agencies levels were referred to the special court for final verdict. The court settled both civil and criminal cases and worked jointly with security agencies like the Police and the NSCDC. It has intervened in many farmer-herder conflicts across the state. The NSCDC on its own has resolved a number of farmer-herder conflicts across the state, including 53 in 2013, 69 in 2014 and 72 in 2015[47]^.

The state government within the period of three years (2012-2015) banned all the herders from night grazing, using non-prescribed medication and wearing face masks. Herders were no longer permitted to graze their herds in the night or use masks to cover their faces. These practices had been prevalent even before 2012 and were part of the root causes of some of the conflicts. For instance, night grazing caused a lot of problems among the competing parties because it was more secure for herders to destroy farmers’ crops at night and escape. Similarly, herders used to wrap their faces with masks before they damaged farmers’ crops so that they could not be identified. Consequently, these prohibitions positively reduced the magnitude of farmer-herder conflicts all over the state and brought harmony among the disputing parties[48]. Additionally, the use of narcotics by herders, especially youth, had become an alarming practice in the state. In 2013, the Jigawa state government implemented extensive measures to prevent drug abuse by herders. For example, the government sought the cooperation of the National Drugs Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) and NSCDC officials towards curtailing drug abuse among the herders. These officials stopped and searched herders, especially at the state entrances. Consequently, numerous herders who were found in possession of illegal drugs were detained and their drugs confiscated while the offenders were prosecuted in a court of law[49].

In order to reduce the frequency of the conflicts in the state, the government established a Monitoring, Security, and Sensitization Committee to keep an eye on, and coordinate the activities of farmers and migrant herders in the state, especially at the beginning of farming activities in the case of the farmers and when herders were arriving in the state, in the case of the herders. The movements of migratory nomads were thus planned and monitored. For instance, the nomads' host local government would inform or communicate with the next local government to which they were traveling. The pasture guards were mandated to establish the source and destination of the migrant herders. The traditional leader of the area would be notified and was expected to take care of them during their stop-over within his jurisdiction. The traditional ruler would be held accountable and might be sanctioned if he did not perform his duty and if a conflict broke out in the area as a result[50]. This approach ensured peace and prevented the occurrence of conflicts between the farmers and herders to a minimal level. The committee also enlightened and informed the herders and farmers on the negative implications of such crises through the use of media houses in the state at the beginning of every rainy season and harvesting period. Farmers were also advised to harvest their crops on time. The herders were informed to wait until the harvesting activities had ended before moving out their herds. These awareness campaigns proved useful in reducing the incidents of conflicts in the State[51].

The effectiveness of the multi-dimensional measures in mitigating farmer-herder conflicts in Jigawa state cannot be over-emphasized, because it has reduced the occurrence of such conflicts in the state to a significant extent. For example, in Ringim local government such conflicts have been reduced from 20 times to about less than 5 times yearly, while in Auyo it has decreased significantly to 5-6 times in a year and in Kirikasamma to below 5 times within the twelve-months of the year[52]^. This is similar in all the other local government areas of the state.

However, despite the measures discussed above, some other factors have hindered the effectiveness of farmer-herder conflict resolution measures in Jigawa state. These include: the government’s allocation of several demarcated and gazetted grazing reserves to influential farmers and politicians; there is also a shortage of funds to develop grazing reserves and inadequate personnel and equipment such as vehicles and tractors. In addition, there are natural challenges like flood, drought and desertification. Other challenges are; the non-cooperating attitude of some farmers and herders in observing the prohibition on night grazing and destruction of farm produce because some herders refused to desist from night grazing and likewise some farmers continued to encroach on the cattle routes etc. There is also the lack of adequate private sector participation in the conflict resolution process in the state, a part of corruption, illiteracy, influence of political class and poverty[53].

Summary of Major Findings

This research established that farmer-herder conflicts in Jigawa State have been influenced by a number of factors, which include annual floods, destruction of farm produce, encroachment on cattle routes, blockage of watering points, assaults, aggressive behavior of both parties, conversion of some grazing reserves to infrastructural developments like hospitals, schools, and roads, as well as ineffective conflict resolution mechanisms. The paper also revealed that farmer-herder conflicts in Jigawa State have caused deaths, injuries, property destruction, displacement, and insecurity. The study established that farmer-herder conflicts in the state can be resolved through traditional methods, intervention by civil society organizations, and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR).

It also observed that the Jigawa State government played an important role in the resolution of such conflicts. For example, between 2012 and 2013, the Jigawa State government implemented multi-dimensional measures to address the conflicts, including the establishment of a Farmers-Herdsmen Board, demarcation of grazing reserves and gazetting of some, prioritizing nomadic education, forming local government sub-committees, compensating victims, and fostering international collaboration with Damagaran State of the Republic of Niger, as well as establishing a special court or mobile court to handle farmer-herder conflicts, etc. A monitoring committee to coordinate farmers' and herders' activities was also constituted. 

Finally, the research established that many factors have hindered the effectiveness of farmer-herder conflict resolution mechanisms in Jigawa State. These include natural challenges like floods, drought, and desertification; insufficient fund allocation to implement all planned measures; inadequate personnel; the non-cooperative attitudes of some farmers and herders (e.g., continuing destruction of farmers’ crops by herders and some farmers continuing to encroach on cattle routes); lack of adequate private sector participation in the conflict resolution process in the state; and the allocation of demarcated grazing reserves to influential farmers and politicians. 

Conclusion

The farmer-herder conflict had significantly affected the socio-economic conditions of many communities in Jigawa State as it led to revenue loss, maiming and injuring of innocent residents, property destruction, displacement and dislocation, and loss of lives. Many measures were taken to manage and minimize the conflicts such as traditional methods and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) with the state government and other stakeholders playing a crucial role. Worthy of mentioning is the effort made by the state government to address the recurring conflicts; from 2012-2013, the Jigawa State government implemented measures to address farmer-herder conflicts. These include: the formation of a Farmers-herdsmen Mediating Committee and Farmers-herdsmen Board, establishment of grazing reserves, animal vaccination, promotion of nomadic education, local government sub-committees, compensation for victims, and international collaboration with Damagaran state. A special court was established to handle farmer-herder conflicts. Night grazing, the use of face masks, and the abuse of drugs were prohibited by the state government. A Monitoring Committee was established to coordinate the activities of the herders and farmers towards reducing conflicts and promoting peace in Jigawa. The effectiveness of farmer-herder conflict resolution in Jigawa state has, however, been challenged by factors such as corruption, inadequate social amenities, illiteracy, interference by the political class and poverty.

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Files

Grazing Reserves File at the Office of the Deputy Director, Stock and Water Points, Farmers-Herdsmen Board, Dutse, Jigawa state on 20th August, 2024.

Jigawa State Farmer and Herdsmen Board Law, its office is located in Dutse, Jigawa State

Jigawa State Farmer and Herdsmen Board Law

Acknowledgement

We want to use this medium to acknowledge the sponsorship granted by Sule Lamido University Kafin Hausa Jigawa state through Tertiary Educational Trust Fund (TETFund) under Institution-Based Research (IBR) which financed this research. We also acknowledge the cooperation from all the informants, stakeholders,
Farmers-Herdsmen Board Dutse, Livestock Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Dutse and security agents all in Jigawa state for the data generated. We sincerely appreciate the officials and members of All Farmers Association of Nigeria (AFAN) and Miyetti Allah Cattle Breeders Association of Nigeria (MACBAN), our research assistants that contributed in one way or the other to the success of this research that produced required data for this article.

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[1] A. R. Usman & Y. B. Ribah, ‘The Role of Traditional Institutions in the Resolution of Farmers-Herders conflict in Jigawa State, Nigeria’ Gusau Journal of Sociology,  Vol. 1, No. 1, March, 2021 (Maiden Edition) Pp. 1-16

[2] For information on the history of farmer-herder conflicts in Africa see B. Bello and M. M. Abdullahi, ‘Farmer–Herdsmen Conflict, Cattle Rustling, and Banditry: The Dialectics of Insecurity in Anka & Maradun Local Government Area of Zamfara State, Nigeria’ 2021, Pp. 1–12, DOI: 10.1177/21582440211040117; M. Davidheiser & A. M. Luna, ‘From Complementarity to Conflict: A Historical Analysis of Farmer-Fulbe Relations in West Africa’ African Journal on Conflict Resolution, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2008, Pp. 77–104.

[3] E. A. Adams, et al, ‘Farmer–Herder Conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa: Drivers, Impacts, and Resolution and Peacebuilding Strategies’ Environmental Research Letters, Vol. 18, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad0702 the

[4] I. M. Abbas, ‘No Retreat no Surrender: Conflict for Survival Between Fulani Pastoralists and Farmers in Northern Nigeria’ European Scientific Journal, Vol. 8, No.1, January, 2012, Pp.331-346; F. W. De St. Croix (1945). The Fulani of Northern Nigeria, Printed by Government Printer, Lagos

[5] R. Blench, (2010). Conflict Between Pastoralists and Cultivators in Nigeria. Review paper prepared for Department for International Development (DFID), Nigeria, Pp. 1-14

[6] A. O. Philip, (2016). ‘Trends and Patterns of Cattle Grazing and Rural Violence in Nigeria (2006-2014)’ in M-A. P. De Montclos (Ed.) Violence in Nigeria: A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis, African Studies Centre and French Institute for Research in Africa, Nigeria: University of Ibadan, P. 64

[7] For detail of the causes of farmers and herders conflicts in northern Nigeria see A. O. Philip, (2016). ‘Trends and Patterns of Cattle Grazing and Rural Violence in Nigeria (2006-2014)’ in Marc-Antoine Perouse de Montclos (ed.) Violence in Nigeria: A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis, African Studies Centre and French Institute for Research in Africa, Nigeria: University of Ibadan, Pp. 61-76; I. M. Abbas, ‘No Retreat no Surrender: Conflict for Survival Between Fulani Pastoralists and Farmers in Northern Nigeria’ European Scientific Journal, Vol. 8, No.1, January, 2012, Pp.331-346; G. Gülşah, (2020). ‘Farmers-Herders Conflict in Nigeria: An Analysis of the Root Causes and the Effects of the Conflict’. Unpublished M. A. in Peace and Conflict Studies, Summer Semester 2019, Philipps University of Marburg, Germany. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347948827; I. A. Hadejia, (1991). ‘Land Use Conflict in Guri District, Kirikasamma Local Area, Kano State’, Unpublished MSC. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Bayero University Kano, Pp. 13-16; E. I. Onah & B. E. Olajide, ‘Applying Restorative Justice in Resolving the Farmers-Herdsmen Conflict in Nigeria’ African Journal on Conflict Resolution, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajcr/article/view/197788; I. Chiluwa & I. M. Chiluwa, ‘Deadlier than Boko Haram’: Representations of the Nigerian Herder-Farmer Conflict in Local and Foreign Press’ Journal of Media, War and Conflict, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2022, Pp. 3-24; A. S. Aliyu (2015). ‘Causes & Resolution of Conflict Between Cattle Herders & Crop Farmers in Katsina State’. Unpublished MSc. Dissertation in Agricultural Extension & Rural Sociology Dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Pp. 13-22; A. A. Ejeh, ‘Conflict Resolution: The Case of Fulani Herders Versus Native Farmers in Nigeria’ Pinini Journal of Art, Humanity & Social Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2022, Pp. 100-108

[8] Ibid

[9] A. O. Philip, (2016). ‘Trends and Patterns of Cattle Grazing and Rural Violence in Nigeria (2006-2014)’ in M-A. P. De Montclos (Ed.) Violence in Nigeria: A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis, African Studies Centre and French Institute for Research in Africa, Nigeria: University of Ibadan, Pp. 63-64

[10] B. Bello and M. M. Abdullahi, ‘Farmers–Herdsmen Conflict, Cattle Rustling, and Banditry: The Dialectics of Insecurity in Anka & Maradun Local Government Area of Zamfara State, Nigeria, 2021, Pp. 1–12, DOI: 10.1177/21582440211040117

[11] Sarkin Gulbi, A., Ahmad, U., Karofi, U.A., Rambo, R.A. & Sani, A-U. ‘Banditry and Pragmatic Solutions to its Menace in Northwestern Nigeria.’ Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, Vol. 3, Issue 2, Pp 1-10, 2024, www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2024.v03i02.001; Sarkin Gulbi, A., Ahmed, U., Rambo, A.R., Mukoshy, J.I. & Sani, A-U. 'Addressing Banditry in Nigeria's North West: Excerpts from the Actors.' EAS Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies, Vol. 6, Issue 1, Pp. 13-19, 2024, www.doi.org/10.36349/easjhcs.2024.v06i01.002.

[12] E. I. Onah & B. E. Olajide, ‘Applying Restorative Justice in Resolving the Farmers-Herdsmen Conflict in Nigeria’ African Journal on Conflict Resolution, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajcr/article/view/197788; I. Chiluwa & I. M. Chiluwa, ‘Deadlier than Boko Haram: Representations of the Nigerian Herder-Farmer Conflict in Local and Foreign Press’ Journal of Media, War and Conflict, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2022, Pp. 3-24

[13] For more information on the fatalities read A. O. Philip, (2016). ‘Trends and Patterns of Cattle Grazing and Rural Violence in Nigeria (2006-2014)’ in M-A. P. De Montclos (Ed.) Violence in Nigeria: A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis, African Studies Centre and French Institute for Research in Africa, Nigeria: University of Ibadan, Pp. 63-73

[14] K. Musa, ‘Farmers-Herders Conflict Management in Nigeria: The Sule Lamido’s Model, 2007-2015’ Jigawa Journal of Historical Studies, Vol. 1, June, 2023 (Maiden Edition), Pp.221-244 

[15] M. D. Hussein & A. R. Usman, ‘Farmers-Herders’ Conflict in Jigawa State, Nigeria’ Benue Journal Sociology, Vol. 7, No. 1, September 2019, Pp.337-354; A. A. Maishanu, (2018). ‘Farmers/Herders Conflict: Jigawa Identifies 452 Grazing Reserves’. Published by Premiumtimes Newspaper on 22nd March, 2018. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/nwest/262704-farmers-herders-conflict-jigawa-identifies-452-grazing reserves.html?tztc=1; I. A. Hadejia, (1991). ‘Land Use Conflict in Guri District, Kirikasamma Local Area, Kano State’. Unpublished MSC. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Bayero University Kano, P.14; Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura, aged 61, retired civil servant and former Director Livestock Jigawa state Ministry of Agriculture, former Permanent Secretary, Jigawa state Ministry of Agriculture and former Executive Secretary, Farmers-Herdsmen Board, Dutse, Jigawa state at his Gumel residence on 02/03/2024.

[16] A. R. Sanusi, S. Apampa & Ayo Sotinrin, (2013). Socially Inclusive Sustainable Development in a Climate Stressed Northern Nigeria: A Case Study of Jigawa State, Lagos, Nigeria: Heinrich Böll Stiftung, P.7. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.ng/books/about/Socially_Inclusive_Sustainable_Developme.html?id=slcvzwEACAAJ&redir_esc=y 

[17] This information was sourced from the Office of the Deputy Director, Stock and Water Points, Farmers-Herdsmen Board, Dutse, Jigawa state on 20^th August, 2024; I. A. Hadejia, (1991). ‘Land Use Conflict in Guri District, Kirikasamma Local Area, Kano State’. Unpublished MSC. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Bayero University Kano, P. 38; Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura, Ahmad Dan Mattawalle aged 65/67, retired civil servant, at Gumel on 22/9/2024 and Audu Gote, aged 60, at Maigatari on 02/03/2024 and many others conducted by co-researcher at different places see list of informants.

[18] Ibid

[19] A. A. Maishanu, M. Babangida &1 other (2022). ‘Special Report: In Jigawa, Floods Worsened Herder-Farmer Conflict’. Published by Premiumtimes Newspaper on 22^nd December, 2022. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com/investigationspecial-reports/571734-special-report-in-jigawa-floods-worsened-herder-farmer-conflict.html

[20] A. A. Maishanu, M. Babangida &1 other (2022). ‘Special Report: In Jigawa, Floods Worsened Herder-Farmer Conflict’. Published by Premiumtimes Newspaper on 22^nd December, 2022. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com/investigationspecial-reports/571734-special-report-in-jigawa-floods-worsened-herder-farmer-conflict.html

[21] Interview with numerous informants across the state (see list of informants); A. Garba, (2023). ‘Analysis of Farmers-Pastoralists Conflict Resolution Strategy in Jigawa State, Nigeria’, Lambert Academic Publishing; for more information on the reasons of farmer-herder conflicts in Jigawa state see I. A. Hadejia (1991). ‘Land Use Conflict in Guri District, Kirikasamma Local Area, Kano State’. Unpublished MSC. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Bayero University Kano, Pp. 48-61; A. M. Chamo, et al. ‘Effect of Demographic Characteristics on Conflicts Management in Jigawa State, Nigeria’ Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Agricultural Extension Society of Nigeria, held at Usmanu Dan Fodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria from 28-29 July, 2020, Pp. 62-74; M. Babagana, et’ al. ‘Pastoralists-Farmers’ Conflicts in Jigawa State, Nigeria: Causes, Repercussions and Solutions’ International Journal of Contemporary Research and Review, Vol. 10, Issue 06, 2019, Pp. 20339-20354

[22] Interviews with Rabi’u Miko Babura, Ahmad Dan Mattawalle and several informants who share the same opinion (please see informants list); I. A. Hadejia (1991). ‘Land Use Conflict in Guri District, Kirikasamma Local Area, Kano State’. Unpublished MSC Dissertation, Department of Geography, Bayero University Kano, Pp.51-58; M. Babagana, et al. ‘Pastoralists-Farmers’ Conflicts in Jigawa State, Nigeria: Causes, Repercussions and Solutions’ International Journal of Contemporary Research and Review, Vol. 10, Issue 06, 2019, Pp. 20339-20354

[23] K. Musa, ‘Farmers-Herders Conflict Management in Nigeria: The Sule Lamido’s Model, 2007-2015’ Jigawa Journal of Historical Studies, Vol. 1, June, 2023, (Maiden Edition), Pp.221-244

[24] Interview with several farmers and stakeholders of Jigawa state, it was conducted by the co-researcher and research assistants. See informants list 

[25] Interview with some selected informants from Jahun and Ringim local government areas (see informants list)

[26] Interview with some selected informants from  Maigatari local government area (see informants list)

[27] Interview with Alhaji Muhammad Umar (Alkalin Gandu), aged 54, farmer, herder and Secretary of Miyetti Allah Cattle Breeders Association of Nigeria (MACBAN), Auyo Local Government Branch, Jigawa state; Kani Kima Auyo, aged 55, civil servant, farmer, and AFAN Secretary, Auyo Local Government Branch; Ali Mai Gari, aged 55, farmer and District Head of Akumusin, at Akumusin, Auyo Local Government area, Jigawa state; Muhammadu Haro, aged 55, Ardo of Marina; Suleiman Abdullahi, aged 58, Village Head of Gatafa were also interviewed. The interviews were conducted by a research assistant on Sunday, 3^rd March and Monday, 4^th March 2024.

[28] Interview with some selected informants from Guri local government area (see informants list for more detail); for information on the areas of persistent farmer-herder conflicts in Guri local government see I. A Hadejia, (1991). ‘Land Use Conflict in Guri District, Kirikasamma Local Area, Kano State’. Unpublished MSC. Dissertation, Department of Geography, Bayero University Kano, Pp. 61-62

[29] Interview with some selected informants from Kirikasamma local government area (see list of informants for more detail)

[30] Interview with Aminu Musa, MACBAN Chairman, Ringim local government area, through phone on 07/12/2024; Lamido Adam, age 40, via phone on 07/12/2024; Alhaji Mai Soma, on 07/12/2024 via phone; Kani Kima Auyo, AFAN Secretary, Auyo local government chapter via phone on 07/12/2024; Alhaji Muhammad Inuwa, MACBAN Chairman, Auyo local government chapter via phone on 07/12/2024. These interviews were conducted by Co-researcher

[31] A. Bako, ‘Colonialism, Insecurity and the future of Sustainable Democracy in Nigeria’. A Keynote Address presented at the National Conference on Tackling Security Challenges for Sustainable Democracy and Development in Nigeria organized by the Centre for Peace Studies, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, 2^nd-5^th October, 2023.

[32] M. D. Hussein, & A. R. Usman, ‘Farmers-Herders’ Conflict in Jigawa State, Nigeria’ Benue Journal Sociology, Vol. 7, No. 1, September, 2019, Pp.337-354; A. R. Usman & Y. B. Ribah, ‘The Role of Traditional Institutions in the Resolution of Farmers-Herders Conflict in Jigawa State, Nigeria’ Gusau Journal of Sociology,  Vol. 1, No. 1 March, 2021 (Maiden Edition), Pp. 1-16; M. Babagana, et’ al. ‘Pastoralists-Farmers’ Conflicts in Jigawa State, Nigeria: Causes, Repercussions and Solutions’ International Journal of Contemporary Research and Review, Vol. 10, Issue 06, 2019, Pp. 20339-20354

[33] Group interview with some selected Farmers in Kura, Bamaina and Rumbuwuya areas of Birnin Kudu Local Government, Jigawa State on 09/03/2024; M. Babagana, et’ al. ‘Pastoralists-Farmers’ Conflicts in Jigawa State, Nigeria: Causes, Repercussions and Solutions’ International Journal of Contemporary Research and Review, Vol. 10, Issue 06, 2019, Pp. 20339-20354

[34]A. Garba, (2023). Analysis of Farmers-Pastoralists Conflict Resolution Strategy in Jigawa State, Nigeria, Lambert Academic Publishing.

[35] A. A. Maishanu, M. Babangida & 1 other (2022). ‘Special Report: In Jigawa, Floods Worsened Herder-Farmer Conflict’. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com/investigationspecial-reports/571734-special-report-in-jigawa-floods-worsened-herder-farmer-conflict.html

[36] H. Mohammed, (2006). Basic Concepts and Theories of Peace and Conflict Resolution, in H. Mohammed (Ed), Concepts and Issues in Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution, General Studies Unit, Bayero University Kano Pp. 1-17

[37] A. R. Usman, & Y. B. Ribah, (2021). The Role of Traditional Institutions in the Resolution of Farmers-Herders Conflict in Jigawa State, Nigeria, Gusau Journal of Sociology, 1(1) (Maiden Edition), Pp. 1-16

[38] Interviews with some selected stakeholders and leaders of civil societies like AFAN and MACBAN; for more information on the role of farmers-herders organizations in the management or other wise of farmers-herders conflicts see S. Omotola & I. Hassan, (2016). Herders’ and Farmers’ Associations and Social Conflicts in Northern Nigeria in M. J. Kuna & J. Ibrahim (Eds.) Rural Banditry and Conflicts in Northern Nigeria, Published by Centre for Democracy & Development, Pastoral Resolve (PARE) & Nigeria Stability & Reconciliation Programme (NSRP), Pp. 218-257

[39] Interview with Ahmad Dan Mattawalle.

[40] Interview with Ahmad Dan Mattawalle and Rabi’u Miko Babura.

[41] For more information see K. Musa, ‘Farmers-Herders Conflict Management in Nigeria: The Sule Lamido’s Model, 2007-2015’, Jigawa Journal of Historical Studies, Vol. 1, June, 2023, (Maiden Edition), Pp.221-244; Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura.

[42] A. M. Usman, (2015). Lamido Magic Stopped Fulani-Farmers Conflicts in Jigawa. Retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/01/lamido-magic-stopped-fulani-farmers-conflicts-jigawa/; A. Usman, (2015). Fulani/farmers conflict: the Jigawa initiative. Retrieved from https://guardian.ng/opinion/columnist/adamu-fulani-farmers-conflict-the-jigawa-initiative

[43] Ibid; A. Garba, (2023). Analysis of Farmers-Pastoralists Conflict Resolution Strategy in Jigawa State, Nigeria. Lambert Academic Publishing; see Jigawa State Farmer and Herdsmen Board Law, its office is located in Dutse, Jigawa State

[44] See K. Musa, ‘Farmers-Herders Conflict Management in Nigeria: The Sule Lamido’s Model, 2007-2015’, Jigawa Journal of Historical Studies, Vol. 1, June, 2023, (Maiden Edition), Pp.221-244; Interview with some selected stakeholders; A. M. Chamo, et al. ‘Effect of Demographic Characteristics on Conflicts Management in Jigawa State, Nigeria’ Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Agricultural Extension Society of Nigeria, held at Usmanu Dan Fodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria from 28-29 July, 2020, Pp. 62-74.

[45] Jigawa State Farmers and Herdsmen Board Law; Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura.

[46] Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura.

[47] M. D. Hussein & A. R. Usman, (2019). Farmers-Herders’ Conflict in Jigawa State, Nigeria, in Benue Journal of Sociology, Vol. 7, No. 1, Pp. 337-354; Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura.

[48] K. Musa, ‘Farmers-Herders Conflict Management in Nigeria: The Sule Lamido’s Model, 2007-2015’, Jigawa Journal of Historical Studies, Vol. 1, June, 2023, (Maiden Edition), Pp.221-244; Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura

[49] Ibid

[50] K. Musa, ‘Farmers-Herders Conflict Management in Nigeria: The Sule Lamido’s Model, 2007-2015’, Jigawa Journal of Historical Studies, Vol. 1, June, 2023, (Maiden Edition), Pp.221-244.

[51] Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura.                                                                     

[52] Interview with Aminu Musa, MACBAN Chairman, Ringim local government area, through phone on 07/12/2024; Lamido Adam, age 40, via phone on 07/12/2024; Alhaji Mai Soma, on 07/12/2024 via phone; Kani Kima Auyo, AFAN Secretary, Auyo local government chapter via phone on 07/12/2024; Alhaji Muhammad Inuwa, MACBAN Chairman, Auyo local government chapter via phone on 07/12/2024. These interviews were conducted by Co-researcher.

[53] Interview with Rabi’u Miko Babura at Gumel on 02/03/2024; interview with anonymous at farmer-herder court at state secretariat, Dutse on; interview with Mohammed Idris, former Director grazing reserves on 10-11/12/2024. These interviews were conducted by co-researcher