Banditry and Pragmatic Solutions to its Menace in Northwestern Nigeria

Citation: Sarkin Gulbi, A., Ahmad, U., Karofi, U.A., Rambo, R.A. & Sani, A-U. (2024). Banditry and Pragmatic Solutions to its Menace in Northwestern Nigeria. Tasambo Journal of Language, Literature, and Culture, 3(2), 1-10. www.doi.org/10.36349/tjllc.2024.v03i02.001.

Banditry and Pragmatic Solutions to its Menace in Northwestern Nigeria

By

Abdullahi Sarkin Gulbi PhD
Department of Nigerian Languages
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
Email: gulbi.abdullahi@udusok.edu.ng
 

Umar Ahmad PhD
Department of Linguistics
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
Email: ummaru@gmail.com
 

Usman Ahamd Karofi PhD
Department of Sociology
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
uakarofi@gmail.com 

Rabi’u Aliyu Rambo PhD
Department of Nigerian Languages
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
Email: dirindaji12aa@gmail.com

Abu-Ubaida Sani
Department of Languages and Cultures
Federal University Gusau
Email: abuubaidasani5@gmail.com 

A publication of the outcomes of TETfund National Research Fund intervention under the NRF 2020 grant cycle.

Abstract

Over the past decade, banditry has escalated dramatically in Nigeria's North-West, leading to the loss of thousands of lives and the destruction of property valued in the millions of Naira. The violence in the region is rooted in complex, interrelated issues, primarily stemming from localized disputes between farmers and herders over land resources. This situation has been exacerbated by the proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALWs) since 2014. The severe impact of armed banditry on peace and security in the region necessitates research aimed at identifying pragmatic solutions to this crisis. This study employs a qualitative approach to directly engage with affected communities, capturing their experiences and perspectives. The findings highlight the urgent need for coordinated action by both national and state governments to address the underlying causes of the crisis effectively. The study concludes with recommendations for intensifying efforts to resolve these fundamental issues and mitigate the ongoing threat of banditry.

Keywords: Banditry, North-West Nigeria, Armed violence, Small arms and light weapons (SALWs), Farmer-herder conflicts, Community engagement, Insecurity, Government action, Crisis management, Regional instability

1.0 Introduction

Nigeria's Northwest is currently grappling with armed banditry and other security challenges that have persisted for over a decade. What began as a localized dispute between farmers and herders over land access in Zamfara State around 2014 has escalated into a widespread crisis, now affecting neighboring states such as Kebbi, Katsina, Kaduna, Niger, and Sokoto. From 2014 to 2021, this crisis has resulted in thousands of deaths and displaced nearly a million people (Rufa’i, 2021). The violence has left over thirty million people in these states[1] vulnerable to various forms of attacks, including shootings, cattle rustling, kidnappings, rape, arson, and looting. This study, based on a qualitative research approach, analyzes the experiences of those most affected at the grassroots level, capturing their voices through field interviews and focus group discussions. The research focuses on selected rural communities in Sokoto and Kebbi states, aiming to identify pragmatic solutions to the menace of armed banditry in Northwestern Nigeria.

The prevalence of armed banditry in Northwestern Nigeria has spurred numerous studies in recent years (Rufa’i 2018, Suleiman 2019, Okoli and Anthony 2019, International Crisis Group 2020, Rufa’i 2021, among others). However, most of this research has concentrated on the causes and consequences of the problem in the region. This paper takes a different approach by critically examining the ordeals and experiences of rural communities affected by armed bandits and offering practical solutions to address the menace. It argues that understanding the experiences of people in these communities is crucial to finding a viable solution, as they are the ones who face incessant attacks from bandits. The paper is structured into several sections. The introduction sets the context of the study, followed by a review of related literature in the second section. The third section describes the methodology employed in the research. The fourth section presents the views and understanding of local populations regarding the security situation in their communities and the relevance of a pragmatic approach to combating armed banditry. The final section offers the conclusions drawn from the study.

2.0 An Overview of Armed Banditry Crisis in Nigeria’s North-West

Scholars have examined the evolution of armed banditry and other security challenges in Northwestern Nigeria (Suleiman 2019). A survey of existing literature on insecurity in the region reveals competing narratives regarding the causes and nature of the problem. The International Crisis Group (ICG) (2020) suggests that banditry and other violent acts in Zamfara and neighboring states are driven by fierce competition over land and water resources between Fulani herders and Hausa farmers, both of whom, as the report shows, have mobilized armed groups to protect their interests and communities. According to this view, "Climate change-related environmental degradation and high population growth have intensified this struggle" (ICG 2020: i). As Suleiman (2019) notes, this intensifies conflicts between herders and farmers in the region, whose livelihoods depend on access to land and water resources.

Another perspective links the growing insecurity to the vast ungoverned forests surrounding most of the states in the region. The lack of state presence in these forested areas has created an environment conducive to the emergence of competing and rival groups of armed and criminal gangs operating under the guise of vigilantism. However, due to their lack of formal security training, these groups often engage in violence and human rights abuses, further exacerbating the security challenges in the region.

From 2014, banditry activities increased exponentially, primarily due to a surge in the illegal trade of small arms and light weapons (SALWs) in the region. As Rufa’i (2018) observes, this led to the proliferation of armed gangs operating from the vast ungoverned forests in Zamfara, Katsina, and Kaduna states. These gangs engage in cattle rustling, banditry, kidnapping for ransom, and armed robbery, including attacks on gold miners and traders in the unregulated gold mining sector in Zamfara and neighboring states. Researchers such as Tanwa (2019) and Rufa’i (2019) note that SALWs have entered the region from Libya following the Arab Spring protests of 2011, which ousted the government of Muammar Gaddafi and led to the ongoing civil war in North African countries, with indirect consequences for Sahelian states such as Mali, Niger, and Nigeria.

Agwai (2017) argues that the main causes of insecurity in Nigeria are numerous and multifaceted, having afflicted the nation since independence. Among these causes are a poorly developed democratic political system, political and social exclusion, and deteriorating moral values.

The growing violence has had a far-reaching impact on the region, creating a domino effect of security problems. The ICG report (2020) shows that in the last ten years, the conflict has resulted in the deaths of over 8,000 innocent people (including women and children) and displaced over 200,000 individuals. Moreover, livestock and food supplies have been decimated, further depressing human livelihood indices, which were already among the lowest in the country. The ICG report further observes that the violence is aggravating other security challenges in the country, forcing more Fulani herders southward into the Middle Belt (North-Central Nigeria), thus increasing farmer-herder tensions in that geopolitical zone and beyond (ICG 2020: ii).

In response to the banditry, the literature shows that the state initially sought to address the violence through military operations, but the results were disappointing (Suleiman 2019, Tanwa 2019). The failure of sustained military action led the governors of the affected states, particularly Zamfara and Katsina, to negotiate with the bandits in 2021 and 2022. Unfortunately, these negotiations only led to further violence, with more rounds of ammunition discharged into the bodies of helpless victims.

3.0 The Magnitude of Banditry in Sokoto, Katsina, Kebbi and Zamfara States

An increase in violent crime in the northwestern states of Katsina, Sokoto, Kebbi, and Zamfara has triggered large-scale displacements and population movements both within these states and across the international border into Niger Republic. According to a rapid assessment conducted by IOM Nigeria in Katsina, Sokoto, and Zamfara States, an estimated 66,900 people have been displaced within these states and are in urgent need of humanitarian assistance.

The IOM assessment found that as at 2021, Zamfara State had the highest number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) at 38,113. This is unsurprising given that 13 out of its 14 local government areas (LGAs) have been affected by ongoing instability. Gusau, the state capital, recorded the highest number of displaced individuals at 8,420, followed closely by Maru LGA with an estimated 5,447 displaced individuals, Bukkuyum with an estimated 4,215 IDPs, Anka with 3,869, and 16,162 in other LGAs.

Katsina State has the next highest number of IDPs at 16,257. Batsari is the most affected LGA, with 3,375 displaced individuals, followed by Katsina LGA with 2,375 and Danmusa with 2,203 displaced persons.

In Sokoto State, the assessment recorded over 12,527 displaced individuals due to recent hostilities perpetuated by armed groups devastating the region. All the LGAs in Sokoto bordering Zamfara State, namely Dange Shuni, Goronyo, Rabah, Sabon Birni, Kebbe, Isa, and Tureta, were reported to have been affected by these security challenges. Sabon Birni has the highest number of displaced persons at 10,000, followed by Rabah with 2,300 individuals.

Additionally, a report by the IOM head office in Niger revealed that as many as 20,000 Nigerians have fled to Niger from the affected states. Most have made their way to border localities such as Madarumfa, Guidan Roumji, Gordon Sory, as well as Gabi and neighboring townships in Niger Republic, in an attempt to enter the country.

This study builds upon previous research in this previously neglected area to bridge the identified gap, contributing to the existing body of knowledge while also providing logical solutions to the problems in the Northwest region of Nigeria.

4.0 Research Methodology

This study adopted a qualitative research approach. The complexity of the inquiry warranted conducting the research within the tradition of ethnography, which involves participating "overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives […], collecting whatever data are available to throw light on the issues with which he or she is concerned” (Hammersley and Atkinson, 2004). Accordingly, we conducted extensive ethnographic fieldwork as both complete observers and participant-observers, capturing grassroots perspectives and voices through key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data were collected from two affected rural communities in each selected local government area across the two focused states, totaling four rural communities in the region: Achida and Rabah (Sokoto State), and Dirin Daji and Dangamji (Kebbi State).

Semi-structured and narrative interviews were conducted with four traditional rulers (ward, village, and district heads or their representatives), eight members of Fulani and Hausa communities, and eight members of vigilante groups. In total, twenty (20) individuals were interviewed, and two focus group discussions were conducted—one in each of the two states selected for the research. Field notes were taken by the researchers as participant observers in various research activities, including during the interviews. The collected data were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analysed qualitatively.

Many respondents expressed the belief that armed banditry and other security challenges in the Northwest can be effectively addressed. They identified the following pragmatic solutions to combat the menace of armed banditry and restore peace in the affected communities and the region at large.

5.0 Pragmatic Solutions to Armed Banditry in Some Affected Rural Communities of Nigeria’s Northwest

By definition, a pragmatic solution refers to a practical approach to addressing an issue, focusing on practical considerations rather than theoretical perspectives. In a pragmatic approach, problems are resolved in a practical and sensible manner, without being bound by fixed ideas or theories. Based on our field interviews with the affected communities in Sokoto and Kebbi states, and after assessing their ordeals and experiences, we identified several practical solutions to address the problem of armed banditry. These solutions have been tested by many peacebuilders within the region and beyond. Below are some of the ways in which the menace of armed banditry can be effectively controlled.

5.1 The Impact of Community Policing in the Region

Many respondents believed that since armed banditry is a local problem, the government and other stakeholders should leverage existing informal community policing efforts in the affected communities. They advocated for an extensive overhaul of the current policing system in favor of a localized, community-focused approach that allows communities to have input into the policing outfit responsible for their security.

The study found that most people in the affected communities perceive local vigilante groups as more effective than police and military personnel. For example, a respondent in Sokoto State emphasized the effectiveness of vigilantes by stating, "The vigilante group is very effective. They are far better than the police and army in responding to distress calls and fighting bandits. If not for the efforts of the vigilantes, people would have fled Achida [a town in Sokoto State] by now."

Other respondents pointed out, "Some police and army personnel deployed to protect us are either unwilling or unable to confront bandits, but we [the vigilantes] are always ready to fight them. We are not afraid of them [bandits]; we sometimes chase them from their hideouts and engage them until they either run away or surrender to us." This highlights the potential of vigilante groups in fighting banditry. Concerted efforts should be made to incorporate vigilante groups into the security architecture of northern Nigeria. The government should leverage the NPower program to recruit, train, and adequately equip able-bodied young men and women into the local vigilante system.

Some respondents also pointed to the success of the Civilian Joint Task Force, comprising local vigilantes and volunteer neighborhood watchers, in combating the Boko Haram insurgency in Borno State as a clear example of a pragmatic approach to addressing insecurity and the relevance of community policing.

However, others argued that the Home Defense Corps (known as ‘Yan sakai in Hausa), organized by some youths in Kebbi State, who take the law into their own hands and attack innocent citizens in the name of vigilantism, should be abolished or restructured by the government. Their actions often contribute to the spread of violence in the affected communities. Merit should be considered in their recruitment as community policing agents.

5.2 Relevance of Traditional Governance Systems and Institutions

Traditional institutions and titleholders are ambassadors of peace in Hausaland (Sarkin Gulbi, 2016). The primary role of traditional institutions is to reconcile disputes and misunderstandings in their respective domains. There must be a deliberate policy to strengthen traditional governance systems and institutions in the region. For generations, informal systems of conflict resolution that have helped resolve conflicts between herders and farmers, without allowing such conflicts to escalate into crises, have either been politicized or deliberately undermined. These systems need to be identified and, in some cases, resuscitated and strengthened. A good starting point would be to enhance the conflict resolution capacities of the various emirate councils in the region, which, according to some respondents, have historically ensured peaceful co-existence between farmers and herders.

One respondent suggested that "the federal and state governments should collaborate with established religious and tr+aditional institutions to build community resilience against banditry." In line with this assertion, in October 2021, Zuru Emirate Council in Kebbi State constituted community-based conflict resolution management committees across the emirate. The committee was mandated to settle farmers-herders disputes and other conflict-related issues at their disposal without taking the cases to the court of law. This measure has significantly reduced the spread of violence in the emirate[2].

5.3 The Impact of Some National Policies and Programs

National programs are strategic frameworks designed to implement the objectives of state policies and government action plans. These programs encompass various sectors such as education, health, agriculture, economy, and socio-political development. For instance, in the education sector, programs like the Universal Basic Education (UBE), Nomadic Education, and Almajiri Integrated Schools were introduced by the Nigerian government to combat illiteracy, thereby reducing youth restiveness, particularly in the Northwestern region of Nigeria. This section discusses the impact of several national programs and policies on addressing armed banditry in the region.

i. Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme

The UBE Program, in collaboration with the National and State Commissions for Nomadic Education, provides an opportunity to address armed banditry in Northwestern Nigeria. Introduced in 1999 by the Federal Government, the UBE Program aims to provide greater access to quality basic education throughout Nigeria. The government and other stakeholders should leverage this program to expand access to civic education in rural Fulani communities in the Northwestern region and across the country. Research, such as that by Nandi (2013), has established a significant relationship between national security and education.

A quick look at the profiles of bandits arrested and paraded by the police in the region reveals a high rate of illiteracy among them. According to Nandi (2013), education develops intelligent social actors capable of making rational decisions and acting wisely. It also addresses issues such as poverty, violent crimes, and illiteracy. Education builds the moral character of citizens by equipping them with skills in moral judgment, which guide their actions and behaviors. It instills values like respect for human life, kindness, respect for elders, tolerance, and non-violence in young people.

Quality basic education also fosters nationalism and patriotism among citizens. Through education, youth develop positive attitudes of togetherness, comradeship, and cooperation toward the entire nation. UNESCO (2008) stated, "No development can be possible without humans, and no humans can reach development without quality education." Anadi (2008) further opined that for a nation to be developed and secure, it must have a considerable proportion of educated citizens capable of acting as doctors, engineers, teachers, agriculturists, scientists, and more. These educated citizens create a new class strong enough to establish values of justice, security, meritocracy, flexibility, empiricism, and efficiency. For this to be realized, Universal Basic Education must be accessible to all, including people in remote Fulani communities.

Quality basic education is a primary agent of national security and development, bringing society's vision to reality. It is our conviction that if armed bandits and other criminal gangs had received proper nurturing with quality Western and religious education from the grassroots, the security threats currently facing the Northwest and the country could have been averted.

ii. Anchor Borrowers’ Programme (ABP)

Launched by President Muhammadu Buhari in 2015, the Anchor Borrowers’ Program (ABP) seeks to reduce poverty among small-scale farmers and assist them in transitioning from subsistence to commercial production. The program has the potential to address poverty and unemployment among the teeming youth population in rural Nigeria.

Many respondents expressed that poverty and unemployment drive people to engage in banditry. This finding aligns with previous studies, such as those by Tanwa (2019) and the International Crisis Group (2020), which identified poverty and unemployment as root causes of armed banditry in Nigeria’s Northwest. A respondent from Achida in Sokoto State observed, "Poverty and unemployment push many people to become informants for bandits."

Another respondent noted, "If the government can support farming activities through agricultural loans and other incentives, farming will become attractive to many youths, reducing the problems of poverty and unemployment that push them into working as informants for bandits."

iii. NPower Programme

Initiated in 2016 by President Muhammadu Buhari, the NPower Program aims to combat unemployment and poverty, particularly among youth aged 18-35. The program, overseen by the Ministry of Youth and Social Development, provides temporary employment for Nigerian youth across various categories, offering them a stipend of thirty thousand to ten thousand naira monthly  (10,000-30,000) depending on the category.

Many beneficiaries of the program have started their businesses and become self-reliant, contributing to entrepreneurship development in the region and the country at large. The program has created job opportunities and reduced the level of poverty that drives many youths to become informants for bandits.

This research calls on the government to sustain the NPower Program due to its relevance in fighting crime. One respondent, a beneficiary of the NPower Program, stated that “the program made him self-reliant and kept him away from engaging in political thuggery and other forms of crime”.

iv. Ruga Settlement Program

The Ruga Settlement Program, initiated by some northern state governors, aims to provide structured settlements for Fulani herdsmen. This initiative should be sustained as it will help to monitor and control the movement of Fulani herdsmen across the region, potentially reducing conflicts between herders and farmers.

5.4 Social Inclusion and Integration Strategy

One of the practical approaches to mitigating armed banditry in Northwestern Nigeria is through a social inclusion and integration strategy. This strategy aims to improve equal opportunities and rights for all individuals, regardless of their social, economic, or tribal backgrounds. Social inclusion involves ensuring that everyone in society has the opportunity to work, participate in social activities, and contribute to the community. By fostering social cohesion, inclusion, and integration, society can build a harmonious environment that discourages conflict and criminal activities.

Ethnic and cultural conflicts in Nigeria, rooted in the historical formation of the Nigerian state, have continued to undermine efforts to build a harmonious society. To achieve a successful social inclusion strategy, it is critical to build institutions capable of facilitating societal transformation and enhancing new ethics and values (Kwanashie, 2017). As one respondent from Kebbi State observed,  “the lack of social justice and inclusion has driven many rural communities into banditry and related crimes”. This respondent emphasized that the government at all levels should bridge this gap by integrating all members of society and giving them a sense of belonging.

A practical example of the effectiveness of social inclusion was highlighted by a respondent from Kebbi State. This respondent noted that “their district head’s practice of involving all his subjects—Hausa, Fulani, Dakarkari, Achifawa, and other minorities—in the district’s affairs under one umbrella of peace has been the foundation of their peaceful coexistence and the absence of banditry in the area”.

5.5 Presence of State Actors in Violence-Prone Communities

The emergence of banditry in Northwestern Nigeria prompted the government to react militarily. Between January 2019 and August 2020, several operations by the Nigerian Army, such as Operation Diran Mikiya, Operation Harbin Kunama, and Operation Puff Adder, were launched to address banditry and other security challenges in the region (Daily Trust Newspaper, September 2, 2020). For example, in July 2020, President Muhammadu Buhari officially launched Operation Harbin Kunama in the Dansadau Forest, of Zamfara State, which borders violence-prone communities in Kebbi State. This military operation was tasked with flushing out armed bandits and cattle rustlers who had been terrorizing farming communities.

The deployment of security personnel to violence-prone communities has alleviated tension among the affected rural populations. By repelling attacks and chasing bandits from their hideouts, these operations have significantly reduced the menace of banditry. However, to sustain and improve these efforts, the government must be proactive in dealing with security issues and threats. This requires modern methods of intelligence gathering and sharing among security personnel, improved training, logistics, motivation, and the deployment of advanced technology in managing security challenges.

5.6 Employment for the Growing Youth Population

Nigeria’s unemployment rate has been steadily increasing, with the National Bureau of Statistics reporting a rise from 19.7% in 2009 to an estimated 59% by 2023. The country has a youth population of over 80 million, representing about 60% of the total population. With a growth rate of 2.6% per year, the youth population remains vibrant, with an average annual entrant to the labor force of 1.8 million between 2006 and 2011. Despite this, a significant portion of the youth population remains unemployed.

The current level of social insecurity in the country, particularly in the Northwestern region, is alarming and unacceptable. Considering the high rate of unemployment, the study suggests that providing employment opportunities is a viable option to address the activities of bandits in the region. Respondents from both Sokoto and Kebbi states identified unemployment as one of the major reasons for the spread and persistence of banditry activities. Therefore, the government and private sectors must take positive action in creating job opportunities for the teeming youth population. By doing so, the focus of these youths can be shifted away from criminal activities, thereby reducing the incidence of banditry in the region.

Ultimately, the real solution lies in accelerating economic development. By creating an economy with relevant social, economic, and physical infrastructure to support business and industrial growth, the economic conditions that push many people into crime will be drastically reduced. This view was widely supported by respondents from both study locations.

5.8 Dialogue

Dialogue is a formal discussion between groups aimed at solving specific problems or ending disputes. In the context of Northwestern Nigeria, the relationship between bandits and local communities has been strained, with frequent violent clashes over the past decade. Efforts to negotiate peace, such as those initiated by the governors of Katsina and Zamfara states, initially resulted in some success. These negotiations led to a temporary cessation of violence and the surrender of weapons by some repentant bandits. However, these gains were short-lived as some bandits regrouped and resumed their attacks, leading to the failure of these dialogues.

The failure of these negotiations has sparked competing narratives regarding their effectiveness. Despite these challenges, dialogue remains a critical tool for conflict resolution. In May 2019, the Sultan of Sokoto, Alhaji Sa’ad Abubakar III, emphasized the importance of dialogue and truth in addressing Nigeria's security challenges. He advocated for continuous dialogue, stressing that it is essential for resolving conflicts and fostering forgiveness, which are vital for building a stable and peaceful society.

The views expressed by the Sultan underscore the potential of dialogue and negotiations as pragmatic solutions to end the threat of banditry in Northwestern Nigeria. While past efforts may have faced setbacks, the continuous pursuit of dialogue, coupled with truth and reconciliation, could play a significant role in achieving lasting peace in the region.

6.0 Recommendations

To effectively address insecurity in Northwestern Nigeria, several measures need to be implemented. These include new security policies, anti-corruption efforts, and fostering cooperation between the government and the people. The following recommendations are proposed:

1.      Monitoring and Control of Fulani Herdsmen Movement: Relevant government agencies and civil society should review and develop mechanisms to monitor and control the movement of Fulani herdsmen across the region. The implementation of Ruga settlements should be prioritized to limit herders' movements and reduce farmer-herder conflicts.

2.      Arms Control: The government should enhance efforts to monitor and control the proliferation of small arms and light weapons across the country, with particular attention to securing borders, especially illegal entry points in states with international borders.

3.      Improving Standards of Living: The government should create more entrepreneurship centers, particularly in Katsina, Sokoto, Kebbi, and Zamfara states, as an urgent measure to address insecurity in these areas.

4.      Fight Against Corruption: Intensifying the fight against corruption is essential to ensure that developmental projects meant to uplift rural dwellers are executed and completed as planned.

5.      Promotion of Good Governance: The government should promote good governance, social inclusion, transparency, and accountability through media, workshops, dialogues, seminars, and NGO activities.

6.      Employment Creation: Establishing more employment centers and entrepreneurship skill acquisition programs will help to make youths self-sustained, reducing their involvement in criminal activities.

7.      Sustained Military Approach: The military approach to combating insecurity should continue, with adequate weaponry and resources provided to ensure effectiveness.

8.      Support for National Programs: National programs aimed at achieving development, such as Universal Basic Education, NPower, and the Anchor Borrowers’ Program, should be sustained and expanded.

9.      Role of Traditional Institutions: Traditional institutions should be empowered to lead in intelligence gathering and conflict resolution efforts.

10.  Incorporating Community Policing: Local community policing should be integrated into the region’s security architecture to enhance responsiveness and effectiveness in combating banditry.

7.0 Conclusion

Insecurity in Northwestern Nigeria is driven by factors such as poverty, unemployment, corruption, social exclusion, poor government policies, and a weak judicial system. The region has seen frequent incidents of cattle rustling, kidnapping, and armed banditry, with public and private facilities destroyed and women and children disproportionately affected.

The findings of this paper, based on assessments from communities in Sokoto and Kebbi states, suggest that the current security challenges could have been mitigated through stronger support for existing informal community policing, strengthening traditional governance systems, expanding social intervention programs like Universal Basic Education, NPower, and Anchor Borrowers, and fostering collaboration between the government, local populations, religious and traditional institutions.

Additionally, the study highlights the importance of social inclusion, the presence of state actors in violence-prone communities, the provision of employment for youth, and continuous dialogue and negotiation with bandits as pragmatic solutions to the menace of banditry in Northwestern Nigeria and beyond. By addressing these issues, the region can move towards lasting peace and security. 

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[1] https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/download/775

[2] Composition of the committee includes the district heads, the representative from religious leaders and security agents, the farmers leaders, and Fulani leaders, the representative of vigilante group.